FIRST DIVISION, CH. 1–24, PROPHECIES OF THE DESTRUCTION OF THE KINGDOM

First Section. Ch. 1–3:21

The section consists of two divisions: First, Ch. 1 inaugural vision of Jehovah; second, Ch. 2–3:21, the various steps by which Jehovah, thus seen, initiated the prophet into his work.

The inaugural vision Ch. 1. has two parts; (1) Ezekiel 1:1-3, definition of the time and place of the appearance of the vision of God; and (2) Ezekiel 1:4-28, description of the vision itself, with its influence upon the prophet. 1–3. The manifestation of Jehovah was made to the prophet in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, on the fifth day of the month, and in the midst of the captives by the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:1); or, it was on the fifth of the month, in the fifth year of the captivity of king Jehoiachin, and in the land of the Chaldeans, by the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:2-3). Ezekiel 1:1-3 appear to contain two superscriptions, one in Ezekiel 1:1, in which the prophet speaks in the first person, and which is syntactically connected with Ezekiel 1:4 seq.; and one in Ezekiel 1:2-3, in which the prophet is spoken of, his name and descent and priestly rank stated, and the thirtieth year of Ezekiel 1:1 identified with the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. The language in Ezekiel 1:1 is precisely similar to almost all the other specifications of time in the Book, e.g. Ezekiel 8:1, Ezekiel 20:1, Ezekiel 24:1, Ezekiel 26:1 Ezekiel 29:1; Ezekiel 29:17, Ezekiel 30:20, Ezekiel 31:1, Ezekiel 32:1; Ezekiel 32:17, Ezekiel 33:21, Ezekiel 40:1. In two cases the phrase “and it came to pass” is not used (Ezekiel 29:1, Ezekiel 40:1). If the verse stood alone the natural inference from the other dates would be that the year was the thirtieth of Jehoiachin’s captivity, as in other cases, or as it is put in two instances “our captivity” (Ezekiel 33:21, Ezekiel 40:1). The latest date mentioned in the Book is the 27th year of the captivity (Ezekiel 29:17), and it has been conjectured that Ezekiel 1:1 refers to another prophecy or vision three years later, and that Ezekiel 1:2-3 form the real heading. Against this, however, is (1) that the specification of circumstances and place in Ezekiel 1:1 is natural in an introductory statement, but not to be expected in any other. In point of fact it nowhere occurs after the introductory visions by which the prophet received his commission, except in references to these visions (Ezekiel 10:15; Ezekiel 10:20; Ezekiel 10:22, Ezekiel 43:3). And (2) the words “which was the fifth year” Ezekiel 1:2 evidently refer to some year already mentioned, which is now said to coincide with the fifth of Jehoiachin’s captivity. The two parts of the superscription are awkwardly connected, but neither of them can be wanted, though it is quite possible that they do not appear in their original form.

The thirtieth year might refer to some event or era from which Ezekiel reckoned. (1) As such an event the discovery of the Book of the Law and Josiah’s consequent reformation of worship (621 b.c.) already occurred to the Chaldee translator. Between this date and 592, the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s captivity there is a period of 29 years. There is, however, no other instance of such a kind of reckoning, nor any evidence that the discovery in Josiah’s eighteenth year was ever regarded as an era. (2) That the prophet should refer to a Babylonian era is quite possible, seeing he lived in Babylonia. But no such era has been discovered. The beginning of the reign of Nabopolassar, when Babylon became independent of Assyria, is usually dated in 625; and the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s captivity would be the thirty-third year of such an era. (3) It is possible that the prophet might refer to the year of his own age. The conjecture that Ezekiel, being a priest, would have entered upon office in his thirtieth year, and that his prophetic call coincided with this date, has little to support it, as the age at which priests might undertake office is nowhere fixed in the Law; and the reference to the year of the prophet’s age in Ezekiel 1:1 would be extremely unnatural. Neither is there much probability in the suggestion (Klostermann, Stud. u. Krit. 1877) that Ezekiel 1:1 is a fragment of a longer passage in which the prophet’s history before his call was narrated. In such a case reference to the thirtieth year of his age would certainly lose its strangeness, but such a history would be without example, as a prophet’s life always opens with his call.

the river of Chebar] Not to be identified with the Chabor (2 Kings 17:6) which falls into the Euphrates at Circesium. More probably the Chebar was some stream much further south in Babylonia proper (2 Kings 24:15; Jeremiah 29:15; Jeremiah 29:20).

heavens were opened] In his trance the prophet saw the heavens opened (Ezekiel 1:3).

visions of God] Might be visions given by God, or visions in which God was seen. The expression is probably to be taken somewhat generally, as meaning heavenly or divine visions (Ezekiel 8:3).

FIRST DIVISION, CH. 1–24, PROPHECIES OF THE DESTRUCTION OF THE KINGDOM

First Section. Ch. 1–3:21

The section consists of two divisions: First, Ch. 1 inaugural vision of Jehovah; second, Ch. 2–3:21, the various steps by which Jehovah, thus seen, initiated the prophet into his work.

The inaugural vision Ch. 1. has two parts; (1) Ezekiel 1:1-3, definition of the time and place of the appearance of the vision of God; and (2) Ezekiel 1:4-28, description of the vision itself, with its influence upon the prophet. 1–3. The manifestation of Jehovah was made to the prophet in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, on the fifth day of the month, and in the midst of the captives by the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:1); or, it was on the fifth of the month, in the fifth year of the captivity of king Jehoiachin, and in the land of the Chaldeans, by the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:2-3). Ezekiel 1:1-3 appear to contain two superscriptions, one in Ezekiel 1:1, in which the prophet speaks in the first person, and which is syntactically connected with Ezekiel 1:4 seq.; and one in Ezekiel 1:2-3, in which the prophet is spoken of, his name and descent and priestly rank stated, and the thirtieth year of Ezekiel 1:1 identified with the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. The language in Ezekiel 1:1 is precisely similar to almost all the other specifications of time in the Book, e.g. Ezekiel 8:1, Ezekiel 20:1, Ezekiel 24:1, Ezekiel 26:1 Ezekiel 29:1; Ezekiel 29:17, Ezekiel 30:20, Ezekiel 31:1, Ezekiel 32:1; Ezekiel 32:17, Ezekiel 33:21, Ezekiel 40:1. In two cases the phrase “and it came to pass” is not used (Ezekiel 29:1, Ezekiel 40:1). If the verse stood alone the natural inference from the other dates would be that the year was the thirtieth of Jehoiachin’s captivity, as in other cases, or as it is put in two instances “our captivity” (Ezekiel 33:21, Ezekiel 40:1). The latest date mentioned in the Book is the 27th year of the captivity (Ezekiel 29:17), and it has been conjectured that Ezekiel 1:1 refers to another prophecy or vision three years later, and that Ezekiel 1:2-3 form the real heading. Against this, however, is (1) that the specification of circumstances and place in Ezekiel 1:1 is natural in an introductory statement, but not to be expected in any other. In point of fact it nowhere occurs after the introductory visions by which the prophet received his commission, except in references to these visions (Ezekiel 10:15; Ezekiel 10:20; Ezekiel 10:22, Ezekiel 43:3). And (2) the words “which was the fifth year” Ezekiel 1:2 evidently refer to some year already mentioned, which is now said to coincide with the fifth of Jehoiachin’s captivity. The two parts of the superscription are awkwardly connected, but neither of them can be wanted, though it is quite possible that they do not appear in their original form.

The thirtieth year might refer to some event or era from which Ezekiel reckoned. (1) As such an event the discovery of the Book of the Law and Josiah’s consequent reformation of worship (621 b.c.) already occurred to the Chaldee translator. Between this date and 592, the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s captivity there is a period of 29 years. There is, however, no other instance of such a kind of reckoning, nor any evidence that the discovery in Josiah’s eighteenth year was ever regarded as an era. (2) That the prophet should refer to a Babylonian era is quite possible, seeing he lived in Babylonia. But no such era has been discovered. The beginning of the reign of Nabopolassar, when Babylon became independent of Assyria, is usually dated in 625; and the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s captivity would be the thirty-third year of such an era. (3) It is possible that the prophet might refer to the year of his own age. The conjecture that Ezekiel, being a priest, would have entered upon office in his thirtieth year, and that his prophetic call coincided with this date, has little to support it, as the age at which priests might undertake office is nowhere fixed in the Law; and the reference to the year of the prophet’s age in Ezekiel 1:1 would be extremely unnatural. Neither is there much probability in the suggestion (Klostermann, Stud. u. Krit. 1877) that Ezekiel 1:1 is a fragment of a longer passage in which the prophet’s history before his call was narrated. In such a case reference to the thirtieth year of his age would certainly lose its strangeness, but such a history would be without example, as a prophet’s life always opens with his call.

the river of Chebar] Not to be identified with the Chabor (2 Kings 17:6) which falls into the Euphrates at Circesium. More probably the Chebar was some stream much further south in Babylonia proper (2 Kings 24:15; Jeremiah 29:15; Jeremiah 29:20).

heavens were opened] In his trance the prophet saw the heavens opened (Ezekiel 1:3).

visions of God] Might be visions given by God, or visions in which God was seen. The expression is probably to be taken somewhat generally, as meaning heavenly or divine visions (Ezekiel 8:3).

2. fifth year … jehoiachin] Jehoiachin, son of Jehoiakim and grandson of Josiah, reigned only three months and ten days. He is also styled Jeconiah or Coniah, Jeremiah 22:24 seq., Ezekiel 24:1, Ezekiel 27:20; 2 Kings 24:8. His captivity dates b.c. 597, and Ezekiel’s call 592, six years before the fall of Jerusalem.

3. came expressly] Omit expressly. The name Ezekiel probably means “God is strong.” Nothing further is known of Ezekiel or of his father Buzi. The designation “priest” appears to apply to Ezekiel, not to his father. As the prophet excludes all Levites from priestly office except the “sons of Zadok” (Ezekiel 40:46, Ezekiel 43:19, Ezekiel 44:15-16), it may be inferred that he belonged himself to this family. It appears from Jeremiah 29:1 seq. that among the captives carried away with Jehoiachin were both priests and prophets.

hand of the Lord] the prophetic ecstasy.

4. God appears in cloud and storm: clouds and darkness are round about him, Exodus 9:24; 1 Kings 19:11; Job 38:1; Psalm 50:3.

out of the north] In Psalms 29 the theophany also comes from the north, and passes southward to the desert. The idea of the prophet can hardly be that the “place” or abode of God, from which he now comes, is situated in the northern part of the earth, for he saw “the heavens opened” (Ezekiel 1:1). In other places he refers to Eden, the garden of God (Ezekiel 28:13, Ezekiel 31:8-9) for which he appears also to use the name “mount of God” (ch. Ezekiel 28:14; Ezekiel 28:16), though without indicating any locality for it, but it would be very precarious to bring these passages into any connexion with the present one. When Jehovah leaves the city (ch. Ezekiel 11:23) his glory passes out by the East gate and stands over the “mountain which is on the East side of the city,” the mount of Olives; and when he returns to the new temple he enters by the same east gate, which therefore is to remain for ever shut (Ezekiel 43:2, Ezekiel 44:2). In Isaiah 14:3 the king of Babylon resolves to seat himself in the mount of assembly, in the recesses of the north, above the stars of God; but whatever this passage means it has no reference to the God of Israel. On the other hand the idea that the theophany appears to come from the north because the north was the region from which the enemies of Israel, the instruments of God’s vengeance, were to advance, is altogether to be rejected. The theophany here is not a manifestation of God specially in the character of an avenger or judge; he does not appear to the prophet as inflamed with anger. The theophany no doubt expresses the prophet’s conception of God, but it is his conception of God as he is in himself and in his nature, not as he is in preparation for any signal act of judgment. This is conclusively shewn by the fact that the theophany here, and that when Jehovah appears for the destruction of Jerusalem (ch. 8–11), and when he again appears to enter the new Jerusalem and make his abode in the new temple (ch. 43) are all identical, according to the statement of the prophet: “and the appearance was like the vision which I saw when I (? he) came to destroy the city, and like the vision that I saw by the river Chebar” (Ezekiel 43:3).

a fire infolding itself] lit. taking hold of itself. The meaning appears to be that the fire incessantly gave out flames or flashes. The expression is suggested by the zigzag, chainlike flash of the thunderbolt.

brightness was about it], i.e. about the whole phenomenon of storm and cloud; though a great cloud it was illuminated all round by the continuous flashing of fire within it.

colour of amber] Perhaps look, glance (Heb. eye) of amber. The word rendered “amber” is of uncertain meaning. LXX. renders elektron, which probably was some very brilliant metal, usually supposed to be an amalgam of gold and silver.

out of the midst of the fire] The words seem an explanation of the preceding phrase “out of the midst thereof.” But this phrase more naturally refers to the whole phenomenon, as in Ezekiel 1:5. The words are wanting in LXX. and may be a gloss. If genuine they might go along with amber: like amber out of the midst of fire, as Revelation 1:15, “like fine brass burning in a furnace.” This is not quite natural, neither is it natural to take “fire” here in a general sense of the great light caused by the fire (Ezekiel 1:13, ch. Ezekiel 10:2; Ezekiel 10:6). Probably the words are a marginal gloss referring the expression “out of the midst thereof” to the fire, while in fact it refers to the whole whirlwind and cloud. The prophet immediately proceeds to describe in detail the four living creatures, the wheels the firmament and throne. No one of these can be the thing compared to electrum, because each of them is compared to something else. It seems that the combined effect produced by these, the look of the whole manifestation within the tempestuous cloud, the chariot, living creatures and the like, was a splendour like that of electrum. When the prophet looked more narrowly the general splendour resolved itself into these individual things, living creatures, wheels and so on.

4–28. The theophany, or, vision of God

This is described first generally, as a whirlwind and great cloud coming from the North, with a luminous splendour around it, due to a fire sending out continuous flashes within it (Ezekiel 1:4).

Secondly, more particularly that is described which appeared within the storm-cloud (Ezekiel 1:5-28). This was the chariot of God, in which he rode, descending to the earth and moving from one place to another (cf. ch. 10). This chariot is represented as foursided. On each of the four sides was a living creature of human shape, with outstretched wings. Also on each of the four sides, beside each of the living creatures there was a wheel. The living creatures are not represented as having any platform or basement under them on which they stand; the wheels are usually said to be “beside” them, in ch. Ezekiel 10:2 “under” them. The wheels are to be conceived as at right angles to each of the four sides of the chariot, presenting their rims to the four points of the compass.

Above the heads of the four living creatures, or over their wings when horizontally expanded, was a firmament of crystal. Above the firmament was the appearance of a throne. And upon the throne the appearance of one like fire, encircled with a glory which was like the rainbow in the day of rain.

5. out of the midst thereof] Most naturally, out of the midst of the whole phenomenon of the tempestuous fiery cloud, though it might be out of that splendour which was like electrum. Four “living creatures,” as Revelation 4, there unfortunately rendered “beasts.”

5–14. The four living creatures

These are described as having in general the human form; they were erect and had apparently two feet (Ezekiel 1:5; Ezekiel 1:7); they had four faces, one looking each way: the face of a man, a lion, an ox and an eagle (Ezekiel 1:10). The man’s face was the front face of each, and met the eye of the beholder who looked at the chariot on any of its four sides, and thus when the chariot moved in any direction the creature on that side had the appearance of an advancing man. The living creatures had each four wings, one pair being used in flight, and the other pair covering the body (Ezekiel 1:6; Ezekiel 1:11). The two pairs of wings were probably at right angles to one another, one pair belonging to the front and back sides and the other pair to the two lateral sides, for it is said that they had human hands under their wings on their four sides (Ezekiel 1:8). They had thus four hands or arms like those of men. Their feet, that is, their limbs were straight like those of men, but their feet proper were round like those of a calf (Ezekiel 1:7). When in motion each creature expanded one pair of wings, that is the wings on the right and left of the front face; the expanded wings of the four thus formed a square, the tips of the wings of each creature touching those of two of its fellows on the right and on the left (Ezekiel 1:11). When the living creatures stood still their wings dropped (Ezekiel 1:24).

6. had four faces] These were a man’s in front of each, an eagle’s opposite to this at the back of each; a lion’s on the right hand of each, and the face of an ox on the left of each. Thus four different faces were presented in each direction, so that in whatever direction the whole moved, while a man’s face was presented first, those of a lion, an ox and an eagle were also encountered. In this view the four living creatures made up one creature, and each of the four was in small that which the four were combined.

7. straight feet] “Feet” here means limbs. These appear to have been two in number, though this is not expressly stated. The foot itself was round, or as much so as that of a calf. The word “straight” applied to the limbs means strictly “even,” i.e. probably without protuberance or knot such as a knee-joint would be. The living creature did not need to turn, and its leg was without joints.

they sparkled … burnished brass] that is, the limbs of the creature, not the living creature itself, Daniel 10:6, “his arms and his feet like in colour to burnished brass” (Revelation 1:15). “Colour” (lit. eye) is probably “glance” (Ezekiel 1:4).

8. Each living creature appears to have had four hands or arms, cf. ch. Ezekiel 10:21. The last words of Ezekiel 1:8 must be joined with Ezekiel 1:9 : “and their faces and their wings, of them four—their wings were joined one to another; they turned not when they went, they went every one straightforward.” The meaning is that as each creature with his outstretched wings formed one side of the square his wings touched or were joined to those of two other creatures, one on his right and another on his left. The words “they turned not” refer to the faces. The above sentence is very awkward, and the whole is given by LXX. in a much shorter form: Ezekiel 1:8 and the faces of them four Ezekiel 1:9 turned not when they went, they went every one straightforward. The clauses in Ezekiel 1:9 (Heb.) correspond respectively to Ezekiel 1:11-12.

10. Read as R. V., and as for the likeness of their faces: they had the face of a man; and they four had the face of a lion on the right side, &c. The right side is that of the living creature, not of the beholder.

11. Thus were their faces] This rendering is perhaps just possible, particularly if present text in Ezekiel 47:17-19 be accepted (which most scholars, however, alter according to Ezekiel 1:20). The words are rather to be omitted (with LXX.); or “inwards” (penîmah) is to be read for “their faces” (pençhem) with Wellh. and attached to Ezekiel 1:10—the face of an eagle inwards, i. e. towards the centre of the chariot. The same change is required ch. Ezekiel 40:22; Ezekiel 40:26.

wings were stretched upward] Or, and their wings were outstretched above. This was their appearance when in flight; each creature stretched out one pair of wings above, while the other pair covered its body. The wings being expanded horizontally would be nearly on a level with the head of the living creature, hence the “firmament” is said to be over the heads of the living creatures or over their expanded wings (Ezekiel 1:22-23). The next clause reads literally: everyone (of the living creatures) had two wings joining everyone (of the living creatures to the others). If the text be correct it states somewhat elliptically what is said with more precision in Ezekiel 1:23 (cf. Ezekiel 1:9), viz. that the tips of the expanded wings of one creature touched the tips of the wings of two other creatures, on his right and on his left.

12. went straightforward] i.e. in the direction to which the living creature’s face was turned. The chariot had four sides facing the four quarters of the heavens; on each side of the chariot was a living creature whose principal face, the human, looked in the same direction as the side of the chariot on which it stood. Thus the whole, the chariot and living creatures, presented exactly the same front to each of the four directions, and there was no need to “turn.” See what is said of the wheels, Ezekiel 1:15 seq.

whither the spirit was to go] The “spirit” is the directing impulse. It did not belong to the individual living creatures but to the whole manifestation composed of living creatures, wheels, and the like.

13. A slight correction of the text after LXX. is necessary in this verse, which should read as R.V. marg., and in the midst of the living creatures was an appearance like burning coals of fire, like the appearance of torches. The description of the living creatures themselves was finished in Ezekiel 1:12; in this verse the prophet refers to the fire that was between them (ch. Ezekiel 10:2; Ezekiel 10:6 seq.). The whole phenomenon represents not only a chariot on which Jehovah rides, but also a throne on which he sits and a place where he abides. Hence as in Isaiah 6 there is an altar with fire. With the idea of Isaiah, however, the prophet has combined the other that coals of fire accompany the manifestation of Jehovah (Psalm 18:13), and the altar fire gives out flashes like the lightning. This again has suggested the combinations in Revelation 6:9; Revelation 8:3-5.

14. Jerome testifies that this verse was not found in LXX. The verse both in regard to terminology and construction is untranslateable. The word rendered “ran” has no existence, and that translated “flash of lightning” is equally unknown. Attempts have been made to amend the verse by substituting for “ran” a real word, “went out” (yaço for raço), and the ordinary word “lightning” for the unknown term so rendered (baraḳ for bazaḳ). But such a movement to and fro or backwards and forwards of the living creatures is not suggested by anything said of them hitherto or afterwards; they could not move without a movement of the whole chariot, and such a darting about like lightning offends against that which is becoming in the divine manifestation. The verse is probably a marginal amplification of Ezekiel 1:13, due to the error which had already crept into that verse, making it apply to the living creatures instead of to the fire between them.

15. beheld the living creatures] lit. and I saw the living creatures and behold. LXX. reads, and I saw and behold—precisely as ch. Ezekiel 8:2, Ezekiel 10:1; Ezekiel 10:9.

by the living creatures] beside, as R.V.

with his four faces] lit. according to, or, at his four faces. LXX. reads, to these four, as Ezekiel 1:10, which is simpler. In the present text the “four faces” must be those of each one of the living creatures. The general sense appears to be that for each face of the individual living creature there was a wheel. The appearance would be so if the wheel really seemed two wheels cutting one another transversely. The position of the living creature was above the wheel, though the rim of the wheel might be higher than his feet (Ezekiel 10:2).

15–21. The Four Wheels

The prophet saw four wheels beside the four living creatures, one wheel beside each creature. The wheels touched the ground, and were all alike, having the appearance of tarshish-stone. The construction of each appeared as if a wheel were within a wheel, that is, each of the four wheels looked like two wheels, cutting each other at right angles. In this way each of the four wheels had a rim or circumference facing each of the four directions, just as the living creature had a face looking in each direction, so that toward whatever quarter the chariot moved four wheels seemed to be running in that direction. Their felloes were full of eyes. The movements of the wheels corresponded entirely with those of the living creatures, they went, rose, or stood still according as the living creatures did. The wheels were not inanimate, but part of the living chariot of God; the “spirit” of the living creature was also in the wheels.

16. the colour of a beryl] Heb. tarshish-stone, so named from Tartessus in Spain, in which country it was found. It is the chrysolite of the ancients, the topaz of the moderns, a stone of a golden colour. Colour is “glance.” The words “and their work” in first clause, and “and their appearance” in second clause are wanting in LXX.

wheel in the middle of a wheel] This was their work or construction; each of the four wheels (ch. Ezekiel 10:10) had this appearance. What seems meant is that the wheels had such a construction that they could run not only, say, east and west, as an ordinary wheel, but also (without turning) north and south. This could be in no other way than by each wheel being double, consisting of two wheels cutting one another in planes at right angles. Thus in whatever direction the chariot moved four wheels appeared to be running in that direction.

17. they turned not when they went] Of course they ran round on their axle, but each wheel was of such a kind that it had a rim facing all four directions, and could run in any direction. On their four sides should rather be, toward.

18. so high that they were dreadful] lit. as for their rings, there was height to them and there was fear to them; R.V. they were high and dreadful. The word “fear,” however, nowhere means terribleness but always terror. Psalm 90:11, “thy fear” is the fear due to thee, or, the fear inspired by thee. The statement also that the rings or felloes were high has little meaning, as in any case the living creatures were higher, and is strangely expressed. The text is possibly in some disorder. The main point of the verse is that the rings or felloes were full of eyes round about.

full of eyes] as R.V. they four had their rings full of eyes round about. The eye is the expression of life and intelligence (ch. Ezekiel 10:12).

19–21. The movement of the wheels corresponded with that of the living creatures. They were animated by the same spirit as the creatures, and were part of the whole living phenomenon. In the Book of Enoch “wheels” (Ophannim) are a class of angels, named along with Seraphim and Cherubim, ch. lxi. 10; lxx. 7.

20. thither was their spirit to go] Rather, the spirit, i.e. the general spirit moving the whole manifestation. The words are wanting in LXX., and are possibly an accidental repetition of those in the beginning of the verse; or they are a somewhat loose and elliptical repetition attached to “they went,” in which case they should rather be rendered, whither the spirit was to go.

spirit of the living creature] The marg. “spirit of life” is to be deleted. The “living creature” is hardly the complex being formed by the four living creatures; the four were exactly alike, and the term is used generically (Ezekiel 1:22, ch. Ezekiel 10:20) to express the kind of creature.

22. And the likeness of the firmament] Rather: and there was a likeness over the heads of the living creature (of) a firmament. The term “firmament” has come from the LXX. (stereôma) through the Vulgate. The verb is used of the creation of the earth, Isaiah 42:5; Isaiah 44:24; Psalm 136:6, and once, Job 37:18, of the creation of the heavens; and the noun is always used of the heavens. In the above passages LXX. renders “make strong,” and the noun “firmament.” The word “firmament” occurs only in Genesis 1; Ezekiel 1; Ezekiel 10:1; Psalm 19:1; Psalm 150:1; Daniel 12:3.

the terrible crystal] Cf. Exodus 24:10, “and they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a pavework of sapphire stone, and as it were the very heaven for clearness.” In Revelation 4, which is largely indebted to Ezekiel 1, the crystal firmament here becomes “a sea of glass like unto crystal” (Ezekiel 1:6). The word “terrible” is wanting in LXX., which reads also as a firmament in the first clause.

22–28. The Firmament, and Throne, and Glory of God

Over the heads and outstretched wings of the four living creatures there appeared a firmament like crystal (Ezekiel 1:22-25); and above the firmament an appearance as of a throne, like a sapphire stone; and upon the throne the appearance of a man (Ezekiel 1:26). From his loins upwards he had the appearance of glancing amber (electrum), and from his loins downwards of fire; and there was a splendour around him like that of the rainbow in the day of rain (Ezekiel 1:25-28).

23. were their wings straight] “straight” is even, level, and the reference appears to be to the upper side of the wings stretched out horizontally under the firmament. It is not meant that the firmament rested on the wings or heads of the living creatures, it was over them.

the one toward the other] A repetition of the statement that the outspread wings of one creature touched those of the other creatures; see Ezekiel 1:9; Ezekiel 1:11.

on this side … on that side] In these rather obscure words “this side,” “that side” do not refer to the “sides” of the individual creature, but to the positions of the different creatures, and might be rendered, “here … there,” or, “respectively … respectively.” It is doubtful, however, if the words can have this meaning. Probably the rendering should be: every one had two covering them, and every one had two covering them, even their bodies—the words “their bodies” giving a more exact definition of “covering them.” Cf. Isaiah 11:9. The statement is repeated in order to distribute it over each of the creatures, although the and before the repetition is less usual (ch. Ezekiel 4:6, Ezekiel 46:21). LXX. reads simply: every one had two, covering their bodies.

24. The sound of the wings of the living creatures when in flight was as the noise of many waters, as the thunder, or, as the roar of a host.

voice of the Almighty] that is, the thunder, Psalm 29:3; Job 37:4. The comparison to waters occurs again, ch. Ezekiel 43:2, and that to the voice of the Almighty, ch. Ezekiel 10:5 (God Almighty). The name Almighty (Heb. shaddai, of uncertain derivation) occurs alone chiefly in poetical pieces, e.g. about thirty times in Job, a few times in prophecy (Isaiah 13:6 = Joel 1:15; Ezekiel 1:24) and in the idyl of Ruth (Ezekiel 1:20-21); but in prose has the word “God” (El) prefixed to it (Genesis 17:1).

the voice of speech] Rather: noise of tumult, as Jeremiah 11:16, where the word appears to occur again. The rendering “speech,” though that of the ancient versions, assumes a different pronunciation. As to noise of a “host” cf. Isaiah 17:12, Joel 2:5. LXX. omits all the comparisons except the first, as in ch. Ezekiel 43:2, unless Jerome is to be followed, who vindicates here for LXX. what is usually ascribed to Theodotion.

25. from the firmament] Rather: above the firmament, as R.V. The voice must be that of him who sat above the firmament. This voice might be supposed to command the movement or halting of the chariot, though such a voice seems nowhere else referred to. The verse repeats the last words of the preceding verse and otherwise is almost identical in words with the following one, and possibly it may not be original.

they stood, and had let down] Render as Ezekiel 1:24, when they stood, they let down their wings. The last words might be rendered: their wings dropped; so Ezekiel 1:24.

26. The rendering of LXX. makes the sapphire stone different from the throne, the former being the ground on which the throne was placed. A special pavement, however, above the firmament, on which the throne was set is scarcely to be expected and is hardly the meaning of Exodus 24:10. Comp. Ezekiel 10:1.

26–28. The throne and glory of Him who sat on it

Above the firmament was the appearance of a throne, like a sapphire stone; and on the throne the appearance of one sitting, from his loins upwards like amber, and from his loins downwards like fire. And round about him was a glory like the rainbow in the day of rain.

27. the colour of amber] the glance (lit. eye). See Ezekiel 1:4.

fire round about within it] This is the natural sense, but “round about” and “within it” seem to contradict one another. The rendering “fire that is enclosed round about,” and therefore brighter by contrast with what surrounds it (Hitz.), expresses a thought more ingenious than probable, and assumes an unlikely construction. The clause is wanting in LXX.

it had brightness round about] Rather: and a brightness round about him, viz. him who sat on the throne (Ezekiel 1:28).

28. The prophet speaks with great reverence. What he saw was the “appearance” of a throne and of one sitting on it and of a rainbow; he does not venture to say that he saw these things themselves. The rainbow is an element borrowed from the theophany in the storm cloud. It expresses the glory surrounding the throne of God. The traditional idea that the rainbow is the token of covenant grace has little to support it. The rainbow in the cloud was a memorial of God’s covenant with nature that he would not again destroy the world with a flood, it had no relation to any covenant of redemption.

the glory of the Lord] probably refers to the particular glory of the appearance sitting on the throne and the rainbow colours around him, not to the whole manifestation embracing the cherubim and wheels. The “glory of the Lord” is described as leaving the cherubim and standing elsewhere, e.g. ch. Ezekiel 9:3, Ezekiel 10:4. At the sight of this glory the prophet fell upon his face.

That which ch. 1 presents is a theophany, a manifestation of God to the prophet. It is not a vision of the cherubim nor of anything else, but of God. The cherubim, wheels, firmament and throne are all subordinate, they have no meaning in themselves, they merely help to suggest what God is who thus manifests himself.

The vision is a composite one, made up of a number of elements drawn from several sources. There is first the idea that God moves and descends to the earth upon the cherubim (Psalm 18:10; Psalm 104:3); he is borne upon them. It is possible that the storm-cloud on which Jehovah rode and in which his presence was enshrouded became personified into a being, which bore him on its wings. Cf. Isaiah 19:1. But if this was the origin of the idea of the cherub, the conception of the cherubim as “living creatures” had become established long before the time of this prophet, as appears from Genesis 3:24. The cherubim being thus the means of Jehovah’s manifesting himself, that on which he was borne and moved, wherever they were seen Jehovah was known to be present. They were the means and the tokens of his manifestation. Hence two great cherubims were placed by Solomon in the Debîr, or innermost shrine of the temple. On these Jehovah was enthroned: he dwelt or sat upon the cherubim (Psalm 99:1; Psalm 80:1).

Again in Isaiah’s vision of “the King, the Lord of hosts” (ch. 6) there is naturally a palace and a throne. The palace, though the heavenly one, is the counterpart of the earthly one or temple, and has a hearth or altar fire. Both the fire and the throne reappear in Ezekiel’s vision in an amplified form. The fire is no more a mere hearth from which a hot coal might be taken, it shoots forth flames and thunderbolts. This is a combination of the phenomena of the theophany in the thunderstorm with the representation of Isaiah. Similarly Isaiah’s idea of Jehovah’s throne being in the heavenly temple has been amplified by Ezekiel with various details. There was seen by him the appearance of a firmament like crystal, and above the firmament the appearance of a throne like a sapphire stone. Jehovah in his manifestation carries heaven, the place of his abode with him. Further his throne is surrounded by the glories of the rainbow, another element borrowed from the theophany in nature. In this way there is in the vision a combination of the theophany in nature with Jehovah’s self-manifestation to men among his people in redemption.

And finally according to his manner the prophet has descended to elaborate details in describing the various elements of the manifestation, the cherubim, the wheels and the like. In all the prophet’s symbols throughout his Book the idea is first and the symbol but the expression of it. In the present case, however, the whole phenomenon is a vision of God, and the ideas which the symbols express are ideas in regard to God. This is evident so far as the wheels, the firmament, the throne and the like are concerned. But the same is true of the cherubim. These are hardly yet independent beings, with a significance belonging to themselves. They are still half in the region of symbol, and what meaning they have has to be transferred to God, whose movements they mediate, just as much as that of the wheels or the flashing fire. At a later time the “wheels” were represented as beings and in the Book of Enoch are a class of angels.

It may be assumed that in the prophet’s mind each detail of the symbolism expressed some idea, though it may not be possible now to interpret the details with certainty. The firmament and throne represent Jehovah as God of heaven, God alone over all, the omnipotent. The fourfold character of the living creatures, their wings, and the wheels which moved in all directions, and presented the same face to every quarter, suggest the power of Jehovah to be everywhere present. The wheels, called whirl or whirling thing (ch. Ezekiel 10:13), may have been suggested by the sweeping whirlwind and tempest in which Jehovah moves. The conception of velocity which they express does not differ greatly from that of ubiquity expressed by their number. The eyes of which they and the living creature were full are symbols of life and intelligence. That the faces of each creature are four is but part of the larger general conception that the creatures are four in number. The four faces, that of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle or vulture are the highest types of animal life. It is possible that to the prophet’s mind these types represented four different attributes. Probably the cherubim in the temple had the human face, though this is not expressly stated. The prophet represents those carved on the walls of the new temple as having two faces, those of a man and a young lion (ch. Ezekiel 41:18). Jehovah is frequently compared to a lion. He is also called by a name which may be an epithet of the ox. The symbol of the ox was a familiar one, 1 Kings 7:25; 1 Kings 7:29; 1 Kings 7:36; 1 Kings 10:19. Ezekiel may have been familiar with the mixed animal forms seen in the Assyrian temples, though it is scarcely necessary to suppose him influenced by these. The multiplication of details in his symbols is so characteristic of him that he may be credited with the creation of the four faces himself, just as of the four hands and four wings of the cherub. Cf. Isaiah 6:2. The derivation and meaning of the word cherub is uncertain. It has been supposed that the word has been found in Assyrian, but this also is not quite certain. See Schrader KAT on Genesis 3:24. Cf. the art. in Encyc. Brit. (Cheyne); Riehm in his Bible Dictionary, and Stud. u. Krit., 1871, also his paper, “De Natura &c. Cheruborum,” 1864. And, Die Lehre des A. Test. über die Cherubim, von J. Nikel, Bres. 1890.