What archaeological evidence supports or questions the existence of Jeroboam’s golden calves in 1 Kings 12:28?

Historical Context of Jeroboam’s Golden Calves

First Kings 12:28 records, “After seeking advice, the king made two golden calves and said to the people, ‘Going up to Jerusalem is too much for you. Here is your God, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt!’” This passage describes how Jeroboam, the first ruler of the northern kingdom of Israel following the division of the monarchy, instituted an alternate system of worship to prevent his subjects from traveling to the Temple in Jerusalem. The biblical text specifies that Jeroboam set up one golden calf at Bethel and the other at Dan (1 Kings 12:29), and this act stood in direct opposition to the worship prescribed in Jerusalem.

Relevant Archaeological Sites

1. Tel Dan

Excavations at Tel Dan have revealed a significant cultic area dating to the Iron Age, consistent with the period following Solomon’s reign (10th century – 9th century BC). Archaeologists found a high place (often called a “bamah”) with traces of elaborate construction features, large enough to indicate significant and organized worship.

• This high place’s size and design align with biblical descriptions of Jeroboam’s altar (1 Kings 12:29–30). A large raised platform, standing stones, and remains of structures for sacrifices have been documented at the site.

• While no direct inscription about “Jeroboam’s golden calf” has been unearthed, the remains of a large worship center support the concept that Tel Dan was a major cultic site.

• Some stone altars and horned altars uncovered within or near Tel Dan show that the northern Israelites developed alternate worship centers apart from Jerusalem, corroborating the biblical narrative of religious practices at Dan.

2. Bethel

Archaeological work at Bethel has also uncovered layers of occupation dating to the period of the divided monarchy. Though the site’s exploration has been complicated by multiple phases of destruction and rebuilding, there is evidence of heightened activity in the 10th–9th centuries BC.

• Certain remains of walls, pottery, and possible cultic structures have been identified in digs at or around the area believed to be Bethel, hinting at an active worship site around Jeroboam’s era.

• The biblical text (1 Kings 12:29) names Bethel as the second location for the golden calf. Although direct artifacts labeled “Jeroboam’s calf” are lacking, the existence of a significant settlement with potential religious structures aligns with the scriptural record indicating Bethel as a principal shrine.

Potential Evidence of Calf Worship

1. Bull Figurines and Calf Icons

Small bronze or copper alloy bull figurines have been discovered at various sites across the Levant. While most of these finds predate or postdate Jeroboam’s reign specifically, their existence suggests that bull or calf iconography was prevalent in Canaanite and Israelite regions.

• One notable example is a bronze bull figurine found at a site called “Hazar” (Tel Hazor). Although scholars debate its precise dating (possibly earlier than the time of Jeroboam), the artifact is often cited to show that the worship of bovine images or the representation of divine strength and fertility was culturally common in surrounding areas.

• The presence of these figurines in the broader region does not definitively confirm Jeroboam’s specific calves, but it does make the biblical report of calf worship more plausible, as such icons were known in the cultural and religious milieu of the time.

2. Iconographic Representations in Nearby Kingdoms

In the surrounding cultures (Phoenician, Aramean, and Canaanite), bulls were commonly revered symbols of power. Archaeological finds from these neighboring regions—reliefs, carved ivories, cylinder seals—depict bulls as sacred or protective animals.

• These parallels suggest that Jeroboam’s choice of a golden calf or bull image was not merely an arbitrary invention, but rather a familiar religious symbol that could have easily been adapted for the northern kingdom’s alternative worship practices.

Scholarly Debates and Critiques

1. Absence of Direct Inscriptions

Critics note that no inscription referencing Jeroboam’s calf worship has been found at Tel Dan, Bethel, or elsewhere. Epigraphic evidence naming Jeroboam alongside a golden calf would be the strongest direct proof. The absence of such artifacts raises questions, yet the lack of an inscription does not necessarily negate the event.

• Throughout the ancient Near East, direct archaeological attestation for specific religious objects can be rare, as valuable icons were often destroyed, lost, or repurposed, especially during conquests or reform movements.

2. Destruction and Rebuilding Over Centuries

Bethel and Dan were sites of repeated destruction and rebuilding under various kings. Wars, invasions, and religious reforms (e.g., King Josiah’s reforms, 2 Kings 23:15) could have eliminated physical traces of Jeroboam’s original calf idols.

• Such cyclical destruction is evident at numerous key biblical sites, complicating attempts to date or assign remains to specific events or rulers. These challenges lead some scholars to question precise attributions of discovered artifacts to Jeroboam’s era.

3. Consistency with Religious Syncretism in the Northern Kingdom

Even if no single artifact definitively proves the golden calves’ existence, the wider picture of religious syncretism in the northern kingdom offers strong circumstantial support. Multiple biblical passages condemn Israel’s mixing of reverence for Yahweh with pagan practices (1 Kings 16:31–33; 2 Kings 17:7–12). This underscores that non-orthodox worship, such as the golden calves, fit the broader spiritual environment described in Scripture.

Considerations from the Biblical Record

1. Scriptural Coherence

The account of Jeroboam’s golden calves coheres with the broader narrative of Israel’s struggle with idolatry, from the Exodus story of the golden calf (Exodus 32) to the condemnation of calf worship by prophets like Hosea (Hosea 10:5).

• The thematic repetition of idol worship—particularly golden calves—shows internal consistency within Scripture. Hosea 10:5–6, for instance, condemns calf worship in Samaria, widely interpreted as referencing Jeroboam’s or subsequent calves maintained in the region.

2. Later Biblical References

Various prophets refer back to the idolatrous practices initiated by Jeroboam. Writers of Kings repeatedly compare succeeding kings of Israel to Jeroboam’s sin (1 Kings 15:25–26; 1 Kings 16:2–3). Such consistency suggests that Jeroboam’s golden calves were a well-known historical and religious reality in ancient Israel, persisting in collective memory.

Archaeological Conclusions

While a direct artifact labeled as one of Jeroboam’s golden calves has not been discovered, the convergence of evidence supports the biblical narrative in several ways:

• Tel Dan’s extensively fortified cultic precinct indicates a large-scale worship center matching the biblical time frame.

• Bethel’s archaeological record highlights its significance during the divided monarchy.

• Common bull or calf iconography in the region aligns with the plausibility of Jeroboam instituting calf idols at alternate worship sites.

• Multiple phases of destruction in the northern kingdom, combined with the lack of inscriptions, explain why direct physical remains of the golden calves are difficult to pinpoint.

From a broad perspective, therefore, the absence of an explicit golden calf fragment in no way invalidates the biblical account. The archaeological and cultural context strongly supports the idea that Jeroboam’s religious innovation was both viable and historically rooted in the practices of the region.

Implications for Faith and Historical Study

The narrative in 1 Kings 12:28 endures as a significant illustration of Israel’s departure from exclusive worship of Yahweh. Archaeological discoveries—especially at Tel Dan and Bethel—provide a tangible setting for the text, affirming that the biblical writers were intimately familiar with real locations, rituals, and political dynamics of their time.

While there remain natural gaps in the material record, the conclusion drawn from multiple excavations and the broader cultural parallels is that Jeroboam’s establishment of calf worship, as portrayed in Scripture, is both credible and consistent with known historical and religious trends of the region.