What does the Jewish Targum refer to?

Definition and Etymology

The term “Targum” refers to an ancient Aramaic translation, paraphrase, or interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures. The word “Targum” itself stems from a Hebrew root meaning “to interpret” or “to translate.” Although these texts often maintained a close fidelity to the Hebrew source, Targums would also incorporate explanatory commentary to clarify meaning for those whose daily spoken language was Aramaic rather than Hebrew.

Historical Background and Purpose

Over the centuries following the Babylonian exile, Aramaic became the lingua franca of much of the Ancient Near East, and many Jewish communities found it necessary to read and explain sacred texts in the language most commonly understood. Even in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, there are indications that Scripture readings were accompanied by explanation for comprehension: “They read from the Book of the Law of God, explaining it and giving insight so that the people could understand what was being read.” (Nehemiah 8:8)

In synagogues, a designated translator (meturgeman) would read or recite the biblical passage from Hebrew, then render it orally in Aramaic. Over time, these oral translations were written down, forming the basis for what would become the Targums.

Major Targums

1. Targum Onkelos

This is regarded as the most authoritative and widely used Targum on the Pentateuch (the Torah: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). It adheres closely to the original Hebrew text while including expansions and interpretive elements to elucidate difficult passages or theological concepts. The Babylonian Jewish communities especially valued Targum Onkelos, and it has been preserved with meticulous care.

2. Targum Jonathan (Targum Yonatan)

Often associated with the Prophets (Nevi’im), this Targum conveys Aramaic renderings of historical and prophetic books such as Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, along with the major and minor prophets. It also offers interpretive glosses that reflect Jewish theological understanding during the Second Temple and post-Second Temple periods.

3. Other Targums

Several other Targums exist for the Writings (Ketuvim)—e.g., Targum Ketuvim for Psalms, the Targum on the Megillot (like Ruth and Esther), and Targum Neofiti, an early Palestinian Targum on the Pentateuch, discovered and published in the 20th century. These also incorporate various explanatory pluses that illuminate how ancient Jewish communities interpreted biblical texts.

Stylistic and Interpretive Features

Many Targums do more than translate the Hebrew into Aramaic. They often include:

• Paraphrastic Expansions – Additional explanatory phrases clarify difficult theological or cultural references.

• Homiletic or Theological Interpretations – Some Targums reflect doctrinal positions that help readers or listeners recognize key themes, such as God’s sovereignty or the anticipation of the Messiah.

• Consistency with the Masoretic Text – While the Targums sometimes adapt phrasing to Aramaic idioms, they largely support the overall textual tradition inherited in the Masoretic Text, underscoring the historical fidelity of Scripture’s preservation.

Role in Jewish Worship and Teaching

Traditionally, Targums were part of synagogue liturgy, helping the congregation follow the weekly reading of the Torah and the Haftarah (selected readings from the Prophets). When Hebrew was no longer commonly spoken, the oral Targum allowed those gathered for worship to listen to and understand the Word of God. Over generations, these translations became a crucial resource for teaching, catechesis, and personal discipleship.

Archaeological and Manuscript Evidence

Fragments of Targums have been found in various sites, including the Cairo Genizah, underscoring their wide dissemination and historical authenticity. Additional manuscripts in libraries and universities worldwide continue to confirm the reliability of these Aramaic versions and shed light on Jewish interpretive traditions. Such manuscript discoveries bolster the consistency of biblical transmission, demonstrating how carefully the Jewish community preserved and clarified Scripture.

Intersection with Christian Study

While Targums were primarily circulated in Jewish communities, they offer valuable insights for broader biblical studies. Scholars examining passages that foretell redemptive events find that certain Targumic expansions highlight messianic or eschatological themes, revealing how first-century Jewish interpreters approached the Hebrew text. These Aramaic interpretations, therefore, contribute to the historical context in which the New Testament was written.

Significance for Understanding Scripture

Because they reflect an early interpretive tradition, Targums illuminate how ancient readers comprehended language, cultural practices, and prophetic expectations. Their close alignment with the Hebrew text, combined with insightful paraphrases and commentaries, affirms the enduring consistency and reliability of the scriptural record. Moreover, they illustrate the ongoing importance of providing Scripture in a language readily understood, a principle still applied in modern translations and ministries around the world.

Conclusion

The Jewish Targums refer to Aramaic translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Scriptures that developed as a means of making God’s Word clear to a community no longer fluent in biblical Hebrew. They hold significance for linguistic, cultural, and theological studies, showcasing both the fidelity of the original text’s transmission and the active engagement of interpreters through centuries of worship and scholarship. These ancient documents thereby mark a testimony to the power of Scripture to reach hearts and minds, bridging language and historical gaps while preserving the message of divine revelation.