Do any ancient sources outside the Bible corroborate the nations’ interventions described in Ezekiel 23, or is the account solely a theological narrative?

Historical Context of Ezekiel 23

Ezekiel 23 provides a vivid allegory of two sisters, symbolizing Samaria (Oholah) and Jerusalem (Oholibah), who engage in political and spiritual alliances with foreign powers—most notably Assyria and Babylon. The passage describes their unfaithfulness to the covenant, culminating in divine judgment through the very nations with whom they had formed illicit alliances. While the language is highly symbolic, it reflects real political entanglements and conflicts in the 8th–6th centuries BC.

Assyrian Records and the Northern Kingdom

The Assyrians, who feature prominently in Ezekiel 23, maintained detailed historical records. Cuneiform inscriptions from Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 745–727 BC), Shalmaneser V (r. 727–722 BC), and Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC) confirm repeated campaigns in the Levant, including military action against the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

• One noteworthy artifact, the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III, contains references to tribute from various Syro-Palestinian states. Although these texts do not explicitly mention the “two sisters” of Ezekiel’s allegory, they document the subjugation of Israel and corroborate the biblical narrative that Assyria exerted significant influence over the region.

• Another critical piece of evidence is the record of Sargon II describing the fall of Samaria in 722 BC and the deportation of its inhabitants. This historical event aligns with 2 Kings 17 and lays the groundwork for Ezekiel’s portrayal of Samaria’s fate as warned by the prophets.

Babylonian Chronicles and Jerusalem

After Assyria’s domination, Babylon rose to power, eventually intervening in the affairs of Judah, just as Ezekiel 23 describes. The Babylonian Chronicles, collected in cuneiform tablets, outline the conquests of King Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC).

• These chronicles record repeated campaigns against Judah, confirming the siege and fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (cf. 2 Kings 24–25). Though they do not refer specifically to the allegorical imagery of Oholibah, they provide decisive evidence that Babylon subdued Jerusalem, echoing Ezekiel’s warnings of judgment through Babylonian aggression.

Archaeological Findings

Archaeology furnishes further confirmation of international interventions in Israel and Judah:

• The “Lachish Reliefs” from the palace of Sennacherib in Nineveh depict the Assyrian conquest of Lachish, a fortified city of Judah, circa 701 BC (cf. 2 Kings 18). These reliefs substantiate a major campaign into the region. Although earlier than Babylon’s eventual conquest, they demonstrate the repeated involvement of superpowers in Judah’s affairs, consistent with themes of Ezekiel 23.

• Ostraca (inscribed pottery) found at Arad and Lachish also reference administrative and military preparations against foreign invasion. These pieces emphasize the political unrest and threats from powerful empires, illuminating the tensions addressed by Ezekiel.

Non-Biblical Literary References

While there are fewer direct references to Jerusalem in surviving pagan literary texts of the period, writers from classical antiquity (later centuries) echo or assume a history of devastation in Israel and Judah by international forces. Josephus (1st century AD) draws upon older sources and recounts the succession of empires that subdued the Jewish people (cf. Antiquities of the Jews), indirectly corroborating the biblical account of repeated domination by Assyria and Babylon. Although Josephus is not entirely contemporaneous with Ezekiel, his reliance on earlier documents and traditions offers an additional layer of external testimony.

Theological and Historical Interplay

While Ezekiel 23 aligns with the theological message that judgment befalls the unfaithful, it is not purely a symbolic or mythic narrative. The repeated mention of Assyria and Babylon as instruments of divine judgment is historically supported by Assyrian and Babylonian records, and by the archaeological data attesting to destruction and deportation.

The theological dimension emphasizes that these nations, however powerful, served a role in fulfilling divine purposes—a perspective consistent with the overarching biblical motif that Yahweh directs the flow of history (cf. Isaiah 10:5–6 and Jeremiah 25:9).

Conclusion

Ancient sources outside the Bible do corroborate the geopolitical events alluded to in Ezekiel 23. Though the text is heavily allegorical and theological, the depiction of Assyrian and Babylonian interventions has real-world grounding in cuneiform records, historical chronicles, and archaeological finds.

Ezekiel’s account, therefore, is not solely a theological narrative but also one deeply rooted in the historical realities of the ancient Near East. The allegory overlays genuine political entanglements and invasions, aligning with known Assyrian and Babylonian activities as well as confirming biblical references across Kings and Chronicles. By examining inscriptions, tablets, reliefs, and later historical writings, it becomes clear that these external sources harmonize with Scripture in demonstrating that Samaria and Jerusalem repeatedly encountered—and were judged through—the interventions of foreign empires.