Does the account of the Queen of Sheba’s visit in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12 have any historical basis or extra-biblical support?

Historical Overview of the Queen of Sheba

The figure known as the Queen of Sheba appears in multiple ancient traditions, with the most famous scriptural account found in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12 (also paralleled in 1 Kings 10:1–13). This episode describes her visit to King Solomon in Jerusalem, bringing lavish gifts and posing challenging questions to test his renowned wisdom. The text in the Berean Standard Bible states, “Now when the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon, she came to Jerusalem to test Solomon with difficult questions” (2 Chronicles 9:1). Despite some debates among historians regarding her identity and kingdom, the story has endured in numerous cultures and documents, suggesting that there is meaningful historical basis and extra-biblical support for her existence and her interaction with Israel.

Biblical Context and Key Details

2 Chronicles 9:1–12 describes a prominent monarch from a region called “Sheba” traveling to Jerusalem, carrying immense riches of gold, spices, and precious stones. This region is traditionally connected to southern Arabia (modern Yemen) or possibly Ethiopia, depending on interpretive frameworks.

The biblical text highlights:

• The Queen’s motive to “test Solomon with difficult questions” (2 Chronicles 9:1).

• Her amazement at Solomon’s wisdom and the splendor of his court.

• Her confession that the reality far exceeded the reports she had heard in her homeland (verses 5–6).

• The substantial exchange of valuable gifts, especially gold and spices, reflecting robust international trade and wealth.

This narrative aligns well with the cultural and economic backdrop of the tenth century BC, a time when Israel was a center of trade networks, connecting Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean.

Geographical and Cultural Background

1. Location of Sheba

The ancient kingdom of Sheba is often placed in southwestern Arabia, corresponding to present-day Yemen. Archaeological surveys have identified remains of a sophisticated Sabaean civilization including impressive dam constructions (e.g., the Marib Dam) and inscriptions in South Arabian scripts. Some interpret Sheba as a broader term referring to multiple Arabian tribes, while others connect the queen’s homeland to the Horn of Africa due to cultural cross-pollination in antiquity.

2. Trade Routes and Economic Evidence

The biblical text notes extensive spices, gold, and precious stones among the Queen’s gifts. Researchers studying the incense trade route—by which frankincense, myrrh, and spices traveled from southern Arabia into the Levant—acknowledge that Sabaean merchant states played a major part in these lucrative exchanges. Historical records and excavations confirm that substantial wealth circulated between Arabian kingdoms and ports adjoining the Red Sea. Such a context supports the biblical portrayal of a ruler possessing sufficient resources and interest to undertake a diplomatic and cultural mission to Solomon’s Israel.

3. Language and Cultural Commonalities

Hebrew and Sabaic (Ancient South Arabian) share Semitic roots. The presence of linguistic ties, though not conclusive proof of the Queen’s identity, shows a plausible avenue for communication and diplomatic exchange—one consistent with the biblical narrative of a cross-cultural encounter.

Extra-Biblical References

1. Josephus (1st Century AD)

The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, in his work “Antiquities of the Jews” (Book 8.6.5), refers to this visit and appears to conflate or combine Ethiopian and Egyptian heritage with Sheba. He writes that the Queen “was inquisitive into philosophy,” echoing the biblical motif of her arrival to test Solomon’s wisdom. This mention by Josephus indicates that the story was recognized in Jewish and Greco-Roman circles centuries after the event.

2. Classical and Arabian Sources

Although direct contemporary records mentioning the Queen by name have not been conclusively identified in Arabian inscriptions, Sabaean texts do attest to powerful female leaders known as “mukarribat,” or queens who played significant roles in diplomacy and trade. Additionally, classical writers referencing Arabia’s wealth and female-led rulerships (though often speaking in generalities) align with the possibility that a legendary queen from that region would be well known.

3. Ethiopian Tradition

A later traditional Ethiopian work called the “Kebra Nagast” portrays the Queen of Sheba under the name “Makeda,” describing her visit to King Solomon, her astonishment at his wisdom, and a lineage said to descend from their union. Though the “Kebra Nagast” is a medieval composition, its inclusion of this account offers testimony that the story’s influence spread far beyond Israel. Ethiopian Christianity regards this narrative as foundational to certain aspects of its royal heritage.

4. Archaeological Correlation

Archaeologists in Yemen have identified the sites of ancient Sabaean temples, inscriptions, and large-scale irrigation projects, showing that developments in that region correspond temporally with the biblical period of Solomon. The advanced state of Saba’s engineering and culture (e.g., the Marib Dam, initially constructed well before the final centuries BC) suggests a complex society with the capacity to produce the kind of wealth described in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12.

5. Other Historical Mentions

Certain medieval geographers and historians, writing centuries after the events, provide records of traditions associating southwestern Arabia’s royal lineage with a queen traveling to distant courts. These accounts, while not always precise, echo the biblical portrayal of an influential female ruler forging diplomatic ties through an awe-inspiring visit.

Analysis of Historical Plausibility

1. Trade and Political Diplomacy

The biblical text portrays Solomon’s kingdom at the height of economic power. Relations with the Phoenicians (e.g., King Hiram), maritime ventures, and the building of a vast fleet (1 Kings 9:26–28) are reflective of an era in which diplomatic exchanges and demonstration of wealth were viable. The Queen of Sheba’s caravan of gifts accords with known trade patterns connecting the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant.

2. Literary Harmony with 1 Kings 10

The parallel narrative in 1 Kings 10 supports 2 Chronicles 9, underscoring the biblical consistency: “When the queen of Sheba heard about the fame of Solomon concerning the name of the LORD, she came to test him with difficult questions” (1 Kings 10:1). The preservation of the account in both books suggests that it was well established within Israelite historical memory.

3. Ancient Near Eastern Protocol

Diplomatic visits among rulers were often marked by elaborate exchanges and public demonstrations of wealth. The presence of a monarch from a rich and distant land would have been recorded with pride, fitting the chronicler’s emphasis on Solomon’s prosperity and renown. This form of regal acknowledgment—where a foreign dignitary praises Israel’s king and its God—was a method of underscoring the kingdom’s high standing.

Addressing Common Objections

1. Absence of Direct Contemporary Inscriptions

While there is currently no inscription conclusively naming the “Queen of Sheba” in the 10th century BC, the broader historical and cultural context aligns with the existence of female-led Sabaean city-states interacting with the Levant. Archaeological evidence rarely preserves direct references to traveling monarchs, particularly for short-term visits.

2. Questions of Chronology

Traditional biblical chronology places Solomon’s reign approximately in the mid-10th century BC. Some scholars question these dates or compress them. However, numerous cross-referencing points in the biblical record (including genealogies, regnal formulas, and external historical markers) substantiate a historical window for Solomon that does not conflict with Arabia’s known development.

3. Hybridization of Legends

There are variations in how different cultures depict the Queen (e.g., the Ethiopian associations, Arabian legends, and even references in some Islamic sources). Such divergences typically arise with revered figures whose stories travel widely and become interwoven with the local lore of many peoples. This does not, however, necessarily undermine the essential event recorded in 2 Chronicles 9.

Theological and Historical Significance

1. Recognition of Divine Wisdom

One of the most salient features is the Queen’s recognition “that the LORD your God… has made you king” (2 Chronicles 9:8). In the broader narrative of Scripture, her acknowledgment underscores Solomon’s role as a conduit for divine wisdom. This acceptance by a foreign ruler of the God of Israel reinforces the universal scope of divine sovereignty in biblical theology.

2. Illustration of Israel’s Prominence

The lavish gifts and glowing testimony illustrate a peak moment in Israel’s national history. Whether read through a faith lens or simply as a historical statement, the text and supporting data from maritime commerce reveal that 10th-century BC Jerusalem held a privileged position along key trade corridors.

3. Legacy in Literature and Culture

From rabbinic writings to medieval Ethiopian and Arabian works, the Queen of Sheba’s visit has greatly influenced art, literature, and historical imagination. This wide-ranging impact points to an event or memory so significant that it resonated through countless generations.

Conclusion

The account in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, describing the Queen of Sheba’s visit to King Solomon, finds considerable support from extra-biblical writings and the broader cultural and archaeological evidence of a flourishing Arabian kingdom known for wealth and trade. Although no single contemporary inscription explicitly names this queen, the confluence of trade documentation, archaeological findings in southern Arabia, cross-cultural references (as seen in Josephus and later traditions), and the biblical text itself provides a coherent backdrop that strongly corroborates the historical credibility of her journey.

Throughout history, scholars, travelers, and rulers have been captivated by the notion of a powerful queen who journeyed across the Arabian Peninsula or the Horn of Africa seeking wisdom. The enduring nature of the Queen of Sheba’s story, coupled with the medieval and ancient sources that affirm such a royal figure, affirms that this biblical account holds a substantial place in the record of ancient Near Eastern diplomacy. The narrative’s portrayal of luxurious gifts, political alliances, and divine wisdom harmonizes with the known practices of that epoch and offers a glimpse into a vibrant historical epoch in which Scripture, tradition, and archaeology intersect.