Cab
Hollow (R.V., "kab"), occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25; a dry measure, the sixth part of a seah, and the eighteenth part of an ephah, equal to about two English quarts.

Cabins
Only in Jer.37:16 (R.V., "cells"), arched vaults or recesses off a passage or room; cells for the closer confinement of prisoners.

Cabul
How little! as nothing. (1.) A town on the eastern border of Asher (Josh.19:27), probably one of the towns given by Solomon to Hiram; the modern Kabul, some 8 miles east of Accho, on the very borders of Galilee.

(2.) A district in the north-west of Galilee, near to Tyre, containing twenty cities given to Hiram by Solomon as a reward for various services rendered to him in building the temple (1 Kings 9:13), and as payment of the six score talents of gold he had borrowed from him. Hiram gave the cities this name because he was not pleased with the gift, the name signifying "good for nothing." Hiram seems afterwards to have restored these cities to Solomon (2 Chr.8:2).

Caesar
The title assumed by the Roman emperors after Julius Caesar. In the New Testament this title is given to various emperors as sovereigns of Judaea without their accompanying distinctive proper names (John 19:15; Acts 17:7). The Jews paid tribute to Caesar (Matt.22:17), and all Roman citizens had the right of appeal to him (Acts 25:11). The Caesars referred to in the New Testament are Augustus (Luke 2:1), Tiberius (3:1; 20:22), Claudius (Acts 11:28), and Nero (Acts 25:8; Phil.4:22).

Caesara Philippi
A city on the northeast of the marshy plain of el-Huleh, 120 miles north of Jerusalem, and 20 miles north of the Sea of Galilee, at the "upper source" of the Jordan, and near the base of Mount Hermon. It is mentioned in Matt.16:13 and Mark 8:27 as the northern limit of our Lord's public ministry. According to some its original name was Baal-Gad (Josh.11:17), or Baal-Hermon (Judg.3:3; 1 Chr.5:23), when it was a Canaanite sanctuary of Baal. It was afterwards called Panium or Paneas, from a deep cavern full of water near the town. This name was given to the cavern by the Greeks of the Macedonian kingdom of Antioch because of its likeness to the grottos of Greece, which were always associated with the worship of their god Pan. Its modern name is Banias. Here Herod built a temple, which he dedicated to Augustus Caesar. This town was afterwards enlarged and embellished by Herod Philip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, of whose territory it formed a part, and was called by him Caesarea Philippi, partly after his own name, and partly after that of the emperor Tiberius Caesar. It is thus distinguished from the Caesarea of Palestine. (See [87]JORDAN.)

Caesarea
(Palestinae), a city on the shore of the Mediterranean, on the great road from Tyre to Egypt, about 70 miles northwest of Jerusalem, at the northern extremity of the plain of Sharon. It was built by Herod the Great (B.C.10), who named it after Caesar Augustus, hence called Caesarea Sebaste (Gr. Sebastos = "Augustus"), on the site of an old town called "Strato's Tower." It was the capital of the Roman province of Judaea, the seat of the governors or procurators, and the headquarters of the Roman troops. It was the great Gentile city of Palestine, with a spacious artificial harbour. It was adorned with many buildings of great splendour, after the manner of the Roman cities of the West. Here Cornelius the centurion was converted through the instrumentality of Peter (Acts 10:1, 24), and thus for the first time the door of faith was opened to the Gentiles. Philip the evangelist resided here with his four daughters (21:8). From this place Saul sailed for his native Tarsus when forced to flee from Jerusalem (9:30), and here he landed when returning from his second missionary journey (18:22). He remained as a prisoner here for two years before his voyage to Rome (Acts 24:27; 25:1, 4, 6, 13). Here on a "set day," when games were celebrated in the theatre in honour of the emperor Claudius, Herod Agrippa I. appeared among the people in great pomp, and in the midst of the idolatrous homage paid to him was suddenly smitten by an angel, and carried out a dying man. He was "eaten of worms" (12:19-23), thus perishing by the same loathsome disease as his granfather, Herod the Great. It still retains its ancient name Kaiseriyeh, but is now desolate. "The present inhabitants of the ruins are snakes, scorpions, lizards, wild boars, and jackals." It is described as the most desolate city of all Palestine.

Cage
(Heb. kelub', Jer.5:27, marg. "coop;" rendered "basket" in Amos 8:1), a basket of wicker-work in which birds were placed after being caught. In Rev.18:2 it is the rendering of the Greek phulake, properly a prison or place of confinement.

Caiaphas
The Jewish high priest (A.D.27-36) at the beginning of our Lord's public ministry, in the reign of Tiberius (Luke 3:2), and also at the time of his condemnation and crucifixion (Matt.26:3, 57; John 11:49; 18:13, 14). He held this office during the whole of Pilate's administration. His wife was the daughter of Annas, who had formerly been high priest, and was probably the vicar or deputy (Heb. sagan) of Caiaphas. He was of the sect of the Sadducees (Acts 5:17), and was a member of the council when he gave his opinion that Jesus should be put to death "for the people, and that the whole nation perish not" (John 11:50). In these words he unconsciously uttered a prophecy. "Like Saul, he was a prophet in spite of himself." Caiaphas had no power to inflict the punishment of death, and therefore Jesus was sent to Pilate, the Roman governor, that he might duly pronounce the sentence against him (Matt.27:2; John 18:28). At a later period his hostility to the gospel is still manifest (Acts 4:6). (See [88]ANNAS.)

Cain
A possession; a spear. (1.) The first-born son of Adam and Eve (Gen.4). He became a tiller of the ground, as his brother Abel followed the pursuits of pastoral life. He was "a sullen, self-willed, haughty, vindictive man; wanting the religious element in his character, and defiant even in his attitude towards God." It came to pass "in process of time" (marg. "at the end of days"), i.e., probably on the Sabbath, that the two brothers presented their offerings to the Lord. Abel's offering was of the "firstlings of his flock and of the fat," while Cain's was "of the fruit of the ground." Abel's sacrifice was "more excellent" (Heb.11:4) than Cain's, and was accepted by God. On this account Cain was "very wroth," and cherished feelings of murderous hatred against his brother, and was at length guilty of the desperate outrage of putting him to death (1 John 3:12). For this crime he was expelled from Eden, and henceforth led the life of an exile, bearing upon him some mark which God had set upon him in answer to his own cry for mercy, so that thereby he might be protected from the wrath of his fellow-men; or it may be that God only gave him some sign to assure him that he would not be slain (Gen.4:15). Doomed to be a wanderer and a fugitive in the earth, he went forth into the "land of Nod", i.e., the land of "exile", which is said to have been in the "east of Eden," and there he built a city, the first we read of, and called it after his son's name, Enoch. His descendants are enumerated to the sixth generation. They gradually degenerated in their moral and spiritual condition till they became wholly corrupt before God. This corruption prevailed, and at length the Deluge was sent by God to prevent the final triumph of evil. (See [89]ABEL.)

(2.) A town of the Kenites, a branch of the Midianites (Josh.15:57), on the east edge of the mountain above Engedi; probably the "nest in a rock" mentioned by Balaam (Num.24:21). It is identified with the modern Yekin, 3 miles south-east of Hebron.

Cainan
Possession; smith. (1.) The fourth antediluvian patriarch, the eldest son of Enos. He was 70 years old at the birth of his eldest son Mahalaleel, after which he lived 840 years (Gen.5:9-14), and was 910 years old when he died. He is also called Kenan (1 Chr.1:2).

(2.) The son of Arphaxad (Luke 3:36). He is nowhere named in the Old Testament. He is usually called the "second Cainan."

Cake
Cakes made of wheat or barley were offered in the temple. They were salted, but unleavened (Ex.29:2; Lev.2:4). In idolatrous worship thin cakes or wafers were offered "to the queen of heaven" (Jer.7:18; 44:19).

Pancakes are described in 2 Sam.13:8, 9. Cakes mingled with oil and baked in the oven are mentioned in Lev.2:4, and "wafers unleavened anointed with oil," in Ex.29:2; Lev.8:26; 1 Chr.23:29. "Cracknels," a kind of crisp cakes, were among the things Jeroboam directed his wife to take with her when she went to consult Ahijah the prophet at Shiloh (1 Kings 14:3). Such hard cakes were carried by the Gibeonites when they came to Joshua (9:5, 12). They described their bread as "mouldy;" but the Hebrew word nikuddim, here used, ought rather to be rendered "hard as biscuit." It is rendered "cracknels" in 1 Kings 14:3. The ordinary bread, when kept for a few days, became dry and excessively hard. The Gibeonites pointed to this hardness of their bread as an evidence that they had come a long journey.

We read also of honey-cakes (Ex.16:31), "cakes of figs" (1 Sam.25:18), "cake" as denoting a whole piece of bread (1 Kings 17:12), and "a [round] cake of barley bread" (Judg.7:13). In Lev.2 is a list of the different kinds of bread and cakes which were fit for offerings.

Calah
One of the most ancient cities of Assyria. "Out of that land he [i.e., Nimrod] went forth into Assyria, and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir, and Calah, and Resen" (Gen.10:11, R.V.). Its site is now marked probably by the Nimrud ruins on the left bank of the Tigris. These cover an area of about 1,000 acres, and are second only in size and importance to the mass of ruins opposite Mosul. This city was at one time the capital of the empire, and was the residence of Sardanapalus and his successors down to the time of Sargon, who built a new capital, the modern Khorsabad. It has been conjectured that these four cities mentioned in Gen.10:11 were afterwards all united into one and called Nineveh (q.v.).

Calamus
The Latin for cane, Hebrew Kaneh, mentioned (Ex.30:23) as one of the ingredients in the holy anointing oil, one of the sweet scents (Cant.4:14), and among the articles sold in the markets of Tyre (Ezek.27:19). The word designates an Oriental plant called the "sweet flag," the Acorus calamus of Linnaeus. It is elsewhere called "sweet cane" (Isa.43:24; Jer.6:20). It has an aromatic smell, and when its knotted stalk is cut and dried and reduced to powder, it forms an ingredient in the most precious perfumes. It was not a native of Palestine, but was imported from Arabia Felix or from India. It was probably that which is now known in India by the name of "lemon grass" or "ginger grass," the Andropogon schoenanthus. (See [90]CANE.)

Calcol
(1 Chr.2:6), sustenance, the same probably as Chalcol (1 Kings 4:31), one of the four sages whom Solomon excelled in wisdom; for "he was wiser than all men."

Caleb
A dog. (1.) One of the three sons of Hezron of the tribe of Judah. He is also called Chelubai (1 Chr.2:9). His descendants are enumerated (18-20, 42-49).

(2.) A "son of Hur, the firstborn of Ephratah" (1 Chr.2:50). Some would read the whole passage thus: "These [i.e., the list in ver.42-49] were the sons of Caleb. The sons of Hur, the firstborn of Ephratah, were Shobal, etc." Thus Hur would be the name of the son and not the father of Caleb (ver.19).

(3.) The son of Jephunneh (Num.13:6; 32:12; Josh.14:6, 14). He was one of those whom Moses sent to search the land in the second year after the Exodus. He was one of the family chiefs of the tribe of Judah. He and Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to go up and possess the land, and they alone were spared when a plague broke out in which the other ten spies perished (Num.13; 14). All the people that had been numbered, from twenty years old and upward, perished in the wilderness except these two. The last notice we have of Caleb is when (being then eighty-five years of age) he came to Joshua at the camp at Gilgal, after the people had gained possession of the land, and reminded him of the promise Moses had made to him, by virtue of which he claimed a certain portion of the land of Kirjath-arba as his inheritance (Josh.14:6-15; 15:13-15; 21:10-12; 1 Sam.25:2, 3; 30:14). He is called a "Kenezite" in Josh.14:6, 14. This may simply mean "son of Kenez" (Num.32:12). Some, however, read "Jephunneh, the son of Kenez," who was a descendant of Hezron, the son of Pharez, a grandson of Judah (1 Chr.2:5). This Caleb may possibly be identical with (2).

(4.) Caleb gave his name apparently to a part of the south country (1 Sam.30:14) of Judah, the district between Hebron and Carmel, which had been assigned to him. When he gave up the city of Hebron to the priests as a city of refuge, he retained possession of the surrounding country (Josh.21:11, 12; comp.1 Sam.25:3).

Calf
Calves were commonly made use of in sacrifices, and are therefore frequently mentioned in Scripture. The "fatted calf" was regarded as the choicest of animal food; it was frequently also offered as a special sacrifice (1 Sam.28:24; Amos 6:4; Luke 15:23). The words used in Jer.34:18, 19, "cut the calf in twain," allude to the custom of dividing a sacrifice into two parts, between which the parties ratifying a covenant passed (Gen.15:9, 10, 17, 18). The sacrifice of the lips, i.e., priase, is called "the calves of our lips" (Hos.14:2, R.V., "as bullocks the offering of our lips." Comp. Heb.13:15; Ps.116:7; Jer.33:11).

The golden calf which Aaron made (Ex.32:4) was probably a copy of the god Moloch rather than of the god Apis, the sacred ox or calf of Egypt. The Jews showed all through their history a tendency toward the Babylonian and Canaanitish idolatry rather than toward that of Egypt.

Ages after this, Jeroboam, king of Israel, set up two idol calves, one at Dan, and the other at Bethel, that he might thus prevent the ten tribes from resorting to Jerusalem for worship (1 Kings 12:28). These calves continued to be a snare to the people till the time of their captivity. The calf at Dan was carried away in the reign of Pekah by Tiglath-pileser, and that at Bethel ten years later, in the reign of Hoshea, by Shalmaneser (2 Kings 15:29; 17:33). This sin of Jeroboam is almost always mentioned along with his name (2 Kings 15:28 etc.).

Calkers
Workmen skilled in stopping the seams of the deck or sides of vessels. The inhabitants of Gebel were employed in such work on Tyrian vessels (Ezek.27:9, 27; marg., "strengtheners" or "stoppers of chinks").

Call
(1.) To cry for help, hence to pray (Gen.4:26). Thus men are said to "call upon the name of the Lord" (Acts 2:21; 7:59; 9:14; Rom.10:12; 1 Cor.1:2).

(2.) God calls with respect to men when he designates them to some special office (Ex.31:2; Isa.22:20; Acts 13:2), and when he invites them to accept his offered grace (Matt.9:13; 11:28; 22:4).

In the message of the gospel his call is addressed to all men, to Jews and Gentiles alike (Matt.28:19; Mark 16:15; Rom.9:24, 25). But this universal call is not inseparably connected with salvation, although it leaves all to whom it comes inexcusable if they reject it (John 3:14-19; Matt.22:14).

An effectual call is something more than the outward message of the Word of God to men. It is internal, and is the result of the enlightening and sanctifying influence of the Holy Spirit (John 16:14; Acts 26: 18; John 6:44), effectually drawing men to Christ, and disposing and enabling them to receive the truth (John 6:45; Acts 16:14; Eph.1:17).

Calling
A profession, or as we usually say, a vocation (1 Cor.7:20). The "hope of your calling" in Eph.4:4 is the hope resulting from your being called into the kingdom of God.

Calneh
Fort, one of the four cities founded by Nimrod (Gen.10:10). It is the modern Niffer, a lofty mound of earth and rubbish situated in the marshes on the left, i.e., the east, bank of the Euphrates, but 30 miles distant from its present course, and about 60 miles south-south-east from Babylon. It is mentioned as one of the towns with which Tyre carried on trade. It was finally taken and probably destroyed by one of the Assyrian kings (Amos 6:2). It is called Calno (Isa.10:9) and Canneh (Ezek.27:23).

Calvary
Only in Luke 23:33, the Latin name Calvaria, which was used as a translation of the Greek word Kranion, by which the Hebrew word Gulgoleth was interpreted, "the place of a skull." It probably took this name from its shape, being a hillock or low, rounded, bare elevation somewhat in the form of a human skull. It is nowhere in Scripture called a "hill." The crucifixion of our Lord took place outside the city walls (Heb.13:11-13) and near the public thoroughfare. "This thing was not done in a corner." (See [91]GOLGOTHA.)

Camel
From the Hebrew gamal, "to repay" or "requite," as the camel does the care of its master. There are two distinct species of camels, having, however, the common characteristics of being "ruminants without horns, without muzzle, with nostrils forming oblique slits, the upper lip divided and separately movable and extensile, the soles of the feet horny, with two toes covered by claws, the limbs long, the abdomen drawn up, while the neck, long and slender, is bent up and down, the reverse of that of a horse, which is arched."

(1.) The Bactrian camel is distinguished by two humps. It is a native of the high table-lands of Central Asia.

(2.) The Arabian camel or dromedary, from the Greek dromos, "a runner" (Isa.60:6; Jer.2:23), has but one hump, and is a native of Western Asia or Africa.

The camel was early used both for riding and as a beast of burden (Gen.24:64; 37:25), and in war (1 Sam.30:17; Isa.21:7). Mention is made of the camel among the cattle given by Pharaoh to Abraham (Gen.12:16). Its flesh was not to be eaten, as it was ranked among unclean animals (Lev.11:4; Deut.14:7). Abraham's servant rode on a camel when he went to fetch a wife for Isaac (Gen.24:10, 11). Jacob had camels as a portion of his wealth (30:43), as Abraham also had (24:35). He sent a present of thirty milch camels to his brother Esau (32:15). It appears to have been little in use among the Jews after the conquest. It is, however, mentioned in the history of David (1 Chr.27:30), and after the Exile (Ezra 2:67; Neh.7:69). Camels were much in use among other nations in the East. The queen of Sheba came with a caravan of camels when she came to see the wisdom of Solomon (1 Kings 10:2; 2 Chr.9:1). Benhadad of Damascus also sent a present to Elisha, "forty camels' burden" (2 Kings 8:9).

To show the difficulty in the way of a rich man's entering into the kingdom, our Lord uses the proverbial expression that it was easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle (Matt.19:24).

To strain at (rather, out) a gnat and swallow a camel was also a proverbial expression (Matt.23:24), used with reference to those who were careful to avoid small faults, and yet did not hesitate to commit the greatest sins. The Jews carefully filtered their wine before drinking it, for fear of swallowing along with it some insect forbidden in the law as unclean, and yet they omitted openly the "weightier matters" of the law.

The raiment worn by John the Baptist was made of camel's hair (Matt.3:4; Mark 1:6), by which he was distinguished from those who resided in royal palaces and wore soft raiment. This was also the case with Elijah (2 Kings 1:8), who is called "a hairy man," from his wearing such raiment. "This is one of the most admirable materials for clothing; it keeps out the heat, cold, and rain." The "sackcloth" so often alluded to (2 Kings 1:8; Isa.15:3; Zech.13:4, etc.) was probably made of camel's hair.

Camon
Full of stalks, a place (Judg.10:5) where Jair was buried. It has usually been supposed to have been a city of Gilead, on the east of Jordan. It is probably, however, the modern Tell-el-Kaimun, on the southern slopes of Carmel, the Jokneam of Carmel (Josh.12:22; 1 Kings 4:12), since it is not at all unlikely that after he became judge, Jair might find it more convenient to live on the west side of Jordan; and that he was buried where he had lived.

Camp
During their journeys across the wilderness, the twelve tribes formed encampments at the different places where they halted (Ex.16:13; Num.2:3). The diagram here given shows the position of the different tribes and the form of the encampment during the wanderings, according to Num.1:53; 2:2-31; 3:29, 35, 38; 10:13-28.

The area of the camp would be in all about 3 square miles. After the Hebrews entered Palestine, the camps then spoken of were exclusively warlike (Josh.11:5, 7; Judg.5:19, 21; 7:1; 1 Sam.29:1; 30:9, etc.).

Camphire
(Heb. copher), mentioned in Cant.1:14 (R.V., "henna-flowers"); 4:13 (R.V., "henna"), is the al-henna of the Arabs, a native of Egypt, producing clusters of small white and yellow odoriferous flowers, whence is made the Oleum Cyprineum. From its leaves is made the peculiar auburn dye with which Eastern women stain their nails and the palms of their hands. It is found only at Engedi, on the shore of the Dead Sea. It is known to botanists by the name Lawsonia alba or inermis, a kind of privet, which grows 6 or 8 feet high. The margin of the Authorized Version of the passages above referred to has "or cypress," not with reference to the conifer so called, but to the circumstance that one of the most highly appreciated species of this plant grew in the island of Cyprus.

Cana
Reedy, a town of Galilee, near Capernaum. Here our Lord wrought his first miracle, the turning of water into wine (John 2:1-11; 4:46). It is also mentioned as the birth-place of Nathanael (21:2). It is not mentioned in the Old Testament. It has been identified with the modern Kana el-Jelil, also called Khurbet Kana, a place 8 or 9 miles north of Nazareth. Others have identified it with Kefr Kenna, which lies on the direct road to the Sea of Galilee, about 5 miles north-east of Nazareth, and 12 in a direct course from Tiberias. It is called "Cana of Galilee," to distinguish it from Cana of Asher (Josh.19:28).

Canaan
(1.) The fourth son of Ham (Gen.10:6). His descendants were under a curse in consequence of the transgression of his father (9:22-27). His eldest son, Zidon, was the father of the Sidonians and Phoenicians. He had eleven sons, who were the founders of as many tribes (10:15-18).

(2.) The country which derived its name from the preceding. The name as first used by the Phoenicians denoted only the maritime plain on which Sidon was built. But in the time of Moses and Joshua it denoted the whole country to the west of the Jordan and the Dead Sea (Deut.11:30). In Josh.5:12 the LXX. read, "land of the Phoenicians," instead of "land of Canaan."

The name signifies "the lowlands," as distinguished from the land of Gilead on the east of Jordan, which was a mountainous district. The extent and boundaries of Canaan are fully set forth in different parts of Scripture (Gen.10:19; 17:8; Num.13:29; 34:8). (See [92]CANAANITES, [93]PALESTINE.)

Canaanite
A name given to the apostle Simon (Matt.10:4; Mark 3:18). The word here does not, however, mean a descendant of Canaan, but is a translation, or rather almost a transliteration, of the Syriac word Kanenyeh (R.V. rendered "Cananaen"), which designates the Jewish sect of the Zealots. Hence he is called elsewhere (Luke 6:15) "Simon Zelotes;" i.e., Simon of the sect of the Zealots. (See [94]SIMON.)

Canaanites
The descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham. Migrating from their original home, they seem to have reached the Persian Gulf, and to have there sojourned for some time. They thence "spread to the west, across the mountain chain of Lebanon to the very edge of the Mediterranean Sea, occupying all the land which later became Palestine, also to the north-west as far as the mountain chain of Taurus. This group was very numerous, and broken up into a great many peoples, as we can judge from the list of nations (Gen.10), the sons of Canaan.'" Six different tribes are mentioned in Ex.3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2; 34:11. In Ex.13:5 the "Perizzites" are omitted. The "Girgashites" are mentioned in addition to the foregoing in Deut.7:1; Josh.3:10.

The "Canaanites," as distinguished from the Amalekites, the Anakim, and the Rephaim, were "dwellers in the lowlands" (Num.13:29), the great plains and valleys, the richest and most important parts of Palestine. Tyre and Sidon, their famous cities, were the centres of great commercial activity; and hence the name "Canaanite" came to signify a "trader" or "merchant" (Job 41:6; Prov.31:24, lit. "Canaanites;" comp. Zeph.1:11; Ezek.17:4). The name "Canaanite" is also sometimes used to designate the non-Israelite inhabitants of the land in general (Gen.12:6; Num.21:3; Judg.1:10).

The Israelites, when they were led to the Promised Land, were commanded utterly to destroy the descendants of Canaan then possessing it (Ex.23:23; Num.33:52, 53; Deut.20:16, 17). This was to be done "by little and little," lest the beasts of the field should increase (Ex.23:29; Deut.7:22, 23). The history of these wars of conquest is given in the Book of Joshua. The extermination of these tribes, however, was never fully carried out. Jerusalem was not taken till the time of David (2 Sam.5:6, 7). In the days of Solomon bond-service was exacted from the fragments of the tribes still remaining in the land (1 Kings 9:20, 21). Even after the return from captivity survivors of five of the Canaanitish tribes were still found in the land.

In the Tell-el-Amarna tablets Canaan is found under the forms of Kinakhna and Kinakhkhi. Under the name of Kanana the Canaanites appear on Egyptian monuments, wearing a coat of mail and helmet, and distinguished by the use of spear and javelin and the battle-axe. They were called Phoenicians by the Greeks and Poeni by the Romans. By race the Canaanites were Semitic. They were famous as merchants and seamen, as well as for their artistic skill. The chief object of their worship was the sun-god, who was addressed by the general name of Baal, "lord." Each locality had its special Baal, and the various local Baals were summed up under the name of Baalim, "lords."

Canaan, the language of
Mentioned in Isa.19:18, denotes the language spoken by the Jews resident in Palestine. The language of the Canaanites and of the Hebrews was substantially the same. This is seen from the fragments of the Phoenician language which still survive, which show the closest analogy to the Hebrew. Yet the subject of the language of the "Canaanites" is very obscure. The cuneiform writing of Babylon, as well as the Babylonian language, was taught in the Canaanitish schools, and the clay tablets of Babylonian literature were stored in the Canaanitish libraries. Even the Babylonian divinities were borrowed by the Canaanites.

Candace
The queen of the Ethiopians whose "eunuch" or chamberlain was converted to Christianity by the instrumentality of Philip the evangelist (Acts 8:27). The country which she ruled was called by the Greeks Meroe, in Upper Nubia. It was long the centre of commercial intercourse between Africa and the south of Asia, and hence became famous for its wealth (Isa.45:14).

It is somewhat singular that female sovereignty seems to have prevailed in Ethiopia, the name Candace (compare "Pharaoh," "Ptolemy," "Caesar") being a title common to several successive queens. It is probable that Judaism had taken root in Ethiopia at this time, and hence the visit of the queen's treasurer to Jerusalem to keep the feast. There is a tradition that Candace was herself converted to Christianity by her treasurer on his return, and that he became the apostle of Christianity in that whole region, carrying it also into Abyssinia. It is said that he also preached the gospel in Arabia Felix and in Ceylon, where he suffered martyrdom. (See [95]PHILIP.)

Candle
Heb. ner, Job 18:6; 29:3; Ps.18:28; Prov.24:20, in all which places the Revised Version and margin of Authorized Version have "lamp," by which the word is elsewhere frequently rendered. The Hebrew word denotes properly any kind of candle or lamp or torch. It is used as a figure of conscience (Prov.20:27), of a Christian example (Matt.5:14, 15), and of prosperity (Job 21:17; Prov.13:9).

Candlestick
The lamp-stand, "candelabrum," which Moses was commanded to make for the tabernacle, according to the pattern shown him. Its form is described in Ex.25:31-40; 37:17-24, and may be seen represented on the Arch of Titus at Rome. It was among the spoils taken by the Romans from the temple of Jerusalem (A.D.70). It was made of fine gold, and with the utensils belonging to it was a talent in weight.

The tabernacle was a tent without windows, and thus artificial light was needed. This was supplied by the candlestick, which, however, served also as a symbol of the church or people of God, who are "the light of the world." The light which "symbolizes the knowledge of God is not the sun or any natural light, but an artificial light supplied with a specially prepared oil; for the knowledge of God is in truth not natural nor common to all men, but furnished over and above nature."

This candlestick was placed on the south side of the Holy Place, opposite the table of shewbread (Ex.27:21; 30:7, 8; Lev.24:3; 1 Sam.3:3). It was lighted every evening, and was extinguished in the morning. In the morning the priests trimmed the seven lamps, borne by the seven branches, with golden snuffers, carrying away the ashes in golden dishes (Ex.25:38), and supplying the lamps at the same time with fresh oil. What ultimately became of the candlestick is unknown.

In Solomon's temple there were ten separate candlesticks of pure gold, five on the right and five on the left of the Holy Place (1 Kings 7:49; 2 Chr.4:7). Their structure is not mentioned. They were carried away to Babylon (Jer.52:19).

In the temple erected after the Exile there was again but one candlestick, and like the first, with seven branches. It was this which was afterwards carried away by Titus to Rome, where it was deposited in the Temple of Peace. When Genseric plundered Rome, he is said to have carried it to Carthage (A.D.455). It was recaptured by Belisarius (A.D.533), and carried to Constantinople and thence to Jerusalem, where it finally disappeared.

Cane
A tall sedgy plant with a hollow stem, growing in moist places. In Isa.43:24; Jer.6:20, the Hebrew word kaneh is thus rendered, giving its name to the plant. It is rendered "reed" in 1 Kings 14:15; Job 40:21; Isa.19:6; 35:7. In Ps.68:30 the expression "company of spearmen" is in the margin and the Revised Version "beasts of the reeds," referring probably to the crocodile or the hippopotamus as a symbol of Egypt. In 2 Kings 18:21; Isa.36:6; Ezek.29:6, 7, the reference is to the weak, fragile nature of the reed. (See [96]CALAMUS.)

Canker
A gangrene or mortification which gradually spreads over the whole body (2 Tim.2:17). In James 5:3 "cankered" means "rusted" (R.V.) or tarnished.

Cankerworm
(Heb. yelek), "the licking locust," which licks up the grass of the field; probably the locust at a certain stage of its growth, just as it emerges from the caterpillar state (Joel 1:4; 2:25). The word is rendered "caterpillar" in Ps.105:34; Jer.51:14, 17 (but R.V. "canker-worm"). "It spoileth and fleeth away" (Nah.3:16), or as some read the passage, "The cankerworm putteth off [i.e., the envelope of its wings], and fleeth away."

Canneh
Mentioned only in Ezek.27:23. (See [97]CALNEH.)

Canon
This word is derived from a Hebrew and Greek word denoting a reed or cane. Hence it means something straight, or something to keep straight; and hence also a rule, or something ruled or measured. It came to be applied to the Scriptures, to denote that they contained the authoritative rule of faith and practice, the standard of doctrine and duty. A book is said to be of canonical authority when it has a right to take a place with the other books which contain a revelation of the Divine will. Such a right does not arise from any ecclesiastical authority, but from the evidence of the inspired authorship of the book. The canonical (i.e., the inspired) books of the Old and New Testaments, are a complete rule, and the only rule, of faith and practice. They contain the whole supernatural revelation of God to men. The New Testament Canon was formed gradually under divine guidance. The different books as they were written came into the possession of the Christian associations which began to be formed soon after the day of Pentecost; and thus slowly the canon increased till all the books were gathered together into one collection containing the whole of the twenty-seven New Testament inspired books. Historical evidence shows that from about the middle of the second century this New Testament collection was substantially such as we now possess. Each book contained in it is proved to have, on its own ground, a right to its place; and thus the whole is of divine authority.

The Old Testament Canon is witnessed to by the New Testament writers. Their evidence is conclusive. The quotations in the New from the Old are very numerous, and the references are much more numerous. These quotations and references by our Lord and the apostles most clearly imply the existence at that time of a well-known and publicly acknowledged collection of Hebrew writings under the designation of "The Scriptures;" "The Law and the Prophets and the Psalms;" "Moses and the Prophets," etc. The appeals to these books, moreover, show that they were regarded as of divine authority, finally deciding all questions of which they treat; and that the whole collection so recognized consisted only of the thirty-nine books which we now posses. Thus they endorse as genuine and authentic the canon of the Jewish Scriptures. The Septuagint Version (q.v.) also contained every book we now have in the Old Testament Scriptures. As to the time at which the Old Testament canon was closed, there are many considerations which point to that of Ezra and Nehemiah, immediately after the return from Babylonian exile. (See [98]BIBLE, [99]EZRA, [100]QUOTATIONS.)

Capernaum
Nahum's town, a Galilean city frequently mentioned in the history of our Lord. It is not mentioned in the Old Testament. After our Lord's expulsion from Nazareth (Matt.4:13-16; Luke 4:16-31), Capernaum became his "own city." It was the scene of many acts and incidents of his life (Matt.8:5, 14, 15; 9:2-6, 10-17; 15:1-20; Mark 1:32-34, etc.). The impenitence and unbelief of its inhabitants after the many evidences our Lord gave among them of the truth of his mission, brought down upon them a heavy denunciation of judgement (Matt.11:23).

It stood on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The "land of Gennesaret," near, if not in, which it was situated, was one of the most prosperous and crowded districts of Palestine. This city lay on the great highway from Damascus to Acco and Tyre. It has been identified with Tell Hum, about two miles south-west of where the Jordan flows into the lake. Here are extensive ruins of walls and foundations, and also the remains of what must have been a beautiful synagogue, which it is conjectured may have been the one built by the centurion (Luke 7:5), in which our Lord frequently taught (John 6:59; Mark 1:21; Luke 4:33). Others have conjectured that the ruins of the city are to be found at Khan Minyeh, some three miles further to the south on the shore of the lake. "If Tell Hum be Capernaum, the remains spoken of are without doubt the ruins of the synagogue built by the Roman centurion, and one of the most sacred places on earth. It was in this building that our Lord gave the well-known discourse in John 6; and it was not without a certain strange feeling that on turning over a large block we found the pot of manna engraved on its face, and remembered the words, I am that bread of life: your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness, and are dead.'", (The Recovery of Jerusalem.)

Caphtor
A chaplet, the original seat of the Philistines (Deut.2:23; Jer.47:4; Amos 9:7). The name is found written in hieroglyphics in the temple of Kom Ombos in Upper Egypt. But the exact situation of Caphtor is unknown, though it is supposed to be Crete, since the Philistines seem to be meant by the "Cherethites" in 1 Sam.30:14 (see also 2 Sam.8:18). It may, however, have been a part of Egypt, the Caphtur in the north Delta, since the Caphtorim were of the same race as the Mizraite people (Gen.10:14; 1 Chr.1:12).

Cappadocia
The easternmost and the largest province of Asia Minor. Christianity very early penetrated into this country (1 Pet.1:1). On the day of Pentecost there were Cappadocians at Jerusalem (Acts 2:9).

Captain
(1.) Heb. sar (1 Sam.22:2; 2 Sam.23:19). Rendered "chief," Gen.40:2; 41:9; rendered also "prince," Dan.1:7; "ruler," Judg.9:30; "governor,' 1 Kings 22:26. This same Hebrew word denotes a military captain (Ex.18:21; 2 Kings 1:9; Deut.1:15; 1 Sam.18:13, etc.), the "captain of the body-guard" (Gen.37:36; 39:1; 41:10; Jer.40:1), or, as the word may be rendered, "chief of the executioners" (marg.). The officers of the king's body-guard frequently acted as executioners. Nebuzar-adan (Jer.39:13) and Arioch (Dan.2:14) held this office in Babylon.

The "captain of the guard" mentioned in Acts 28:16 was the Praetorian prefect, the commander of the Praetorian troops.

(2.) Another word (Heb. katsin) so translated denotes sometimes a military (Josh.10:24; Judg.11:6, 11; Isa.22:3 "rulers;" Dan.11:18) and sometimes a civil command, a judge, magistrate, Arab. kady, (Isa.1:10; 3:6; Micah 3:1, 9).

(3.) It is also the rendering of a Hebrew word (shalish) meaning "a third man," or "one of three." The LXX. render in plural by tristatai; i.e., "soldiers fighting from chariots," so called because each war-chariot contained three men, one of whom acted as charioteer while the other two fought (Ex.14:7; 15:4; 1 Kings 9:22; comp.2 Kings 9:25). This word is used also to denote the king's body-guard (2 Kings 10:25; 1 Chr.12:18; 2 Chr.11:11) or aides-de-camp.

(4.) The "captain of the temple" mentioned in Acts 4:1 and 5:24 was not a military officer, but superintendent of the guard of priests and Levites who kept watch in the temple by night. (Comp. "the ruler of the house of God," 1 Chr.9:11; 2 Chr.31:13; Neh.11:11.)

(5.) The Captain of our salvation is a name given to our Lord (Heb.2:10), because he is the author and source of our salvation, the head of his people, whom he is conducting to glory. The "captain of the Lord's host" (Josh.5:14, 15) is the name given to that mysterious person who manifested himself to Abraham (Gen.12:7), and to Moses in the bush (Ex.3:2, 6, etc.) the Angel of the covenant. (See [101]ANGEL.)

Captive
One taken in war. Captives were often treated with great cruelty and indignity (1 Kings 20:32; Josh.10:24; Judg.1:7; 2 Sam.4:12; Judg.8:7; 2 Sam.12:31; 1 Chr.20:3). When a city was taken by assault, all the men were slain, and the women and children carried away captive and sold as slaves (Isa.20; 47:3; 2 Chr.28:9-15; Ps.44:12; Joel 3:3), and exposed to the most cruel treatment (Nah.3:10; Zech.14:2; Esther 3:13; 2 Kings 8:12; Isa.13:16, 18). Captives were sometimes carried away into foreign countries, as was the case with the Jews (Jer.20:5; 39:9, 10; 40:7).

Captivity
(1.) Of Israel. The kingdom of the ten tribes was successively invaded by several Assyrian kings. Pul (q.v.) imposed a tribute on Menahem of a thousand talents of silver (2 Kings 15:19, 20; 1 Chr.5:26) (B.C.762), and Tiglath-pileser, in the days of Pekah (B.C.738), carried away the trans-Jordanic tribes and the inhabitants of Galilee into Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; Isa.9:1). Subsequently Shalmaneser invaded Israel and laid siege to Samaria, the capital of the kingdom. During the siege he died, and was succeeded by Sargon, who took the city, and transported the great mass of the people into Assyria (B.C.721), placing them in Halah and in Habor, and in the cities of the Medes (2 Kings 17:3, 5). Samaria was never again inhabited by the Israelites. The families thus removed were carried to distant cities, many of them not far from the Caspian Sea, and their place was supplied by colonists from Babylon and Cuthah, etc. (2 Kings 17:24). Thus terminated the kingdom of the ten tribes, after a separate duration of two hundred and fifty-five years (B.C.975-721).

Many speculations have been indulged in with reference to these ten tribes. But we believe that all, except the number that probably allied themselves with Judah and shared in their restoration under Cyrus, are finally lost.

"Like the dew on the mountain, Like the foam on the river, Like the bubble on the fountain, They are gone, and for ever."

(2.) Of Judah. In the third year of Jehoiachim, the eighteenth king of Judah (B.C.605), Nebuchadnezzar having overcome the Egyptians at Carchemish, advanced to Jerusalem with a great army. After a brief siege he took that city, and carried away the vessels of the sanctuary to Babylon, and dedicated them in the Temple of Belus (2 Kings 24:1; 2 Chr.36:6, 7; Dan.1:1, 2). He also carried away the treasures of the king, whom he made his vassal. At this time, from which is dated the "seventy years" of captivity (Jer.25; Dan.9:1, 2), Daniel and his companions were carried to Babylon, there to be brought up at the court and trained in all the learning of the Chaldeans. After this, in the fifth year of Jehoiakim, a great national fast was appointed (Jer.36:9), during which the king, to show his defiance, cut up the leaves of the book of Jeremiah's prophecies as they were read to him in his winter palace, and threw them into the fire. In the same spirit he rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24:1), who again a second time (B.C.598) marched against Jerusalem, and put Jehoiachim to death, placing his son Jehoiachin on the throne in his stead. But Jehoiachin's counsellors displeasing Nebuchadnezzar, he again a third time turned his army against Jerusalem, and carried away to Babylon a second detachment of Jews as captives, to the number of 10,000 (2 Kings 24:13; Jer.24:1; 2 Chr.36:10), among whom were the king, with his mother and all his princes and officers, also Ezekiel, who with many of his companions were settled on the banks of the river Chebar (q.v.). He also carried away all the remaining treasures of the temple and the palace, and the golden vessels of the sanctuary.

Mattaniah, the uncle of Jehoiachin, was now made king over what remained of the kingdom of Judah, under the name of Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:17; 2 Chr.36:10). After a troubled reign of eleven years his kingdom came to an end (2 Chr.36:11). Nebuchadnezzar, with a powerful army, besieged Jerusalem, and Zedekiah became a prisoner in Babylon. His eyes were put out, and he was kept in close confinement till his death (2 Kings 25:7). The city was spoiled of all that was of value, and then given up to the flames. The temple and palaces were consumed, and the walls of the city were levelled with the ground (B.C.586), and all that remained of the people, except a number of the poorest class who were left to till the ground and dress the vineyards, were carried away captives to Babylon. This was the third and last deportation of Jewish captives. The land was now utterly desolate, and was abondoned to anarchy.

In the first year of his reign as king of Babylon (B.C.536), Cyrus issued a decree liberating the Jewish captives, and permitting them to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the city and the temple (2 Chr.36:22, 23; Ezra 1; 2). The number of the people forming the first caravan, under Zerubbabel, amounted in all to 42,360 (Ezra 2:64, 65), besides 7,337 men-servants and maid-servants. A considerable number, 12,000 probably, from the ten tribes who had been carried away into Assyria no doubt combined with this band of liberated captives.

At a later period other bands of the Jews returned (1) under Ezra (7:7) (B.C.458), and (2) Nehemiah (7:66) (B.C.445). But the great mass of the people remained still in the land to which they had been carried, and became a portion of the Jews of the "dispersion" (John 7:35; 1 Pet.1:1). The whole number of the exiles that chose to remain was probably about six times the number of those who returned.

Carbuncle
(Ex.28:17; 39:10; Ezek.28:13). Heb. barkath; LXX. smaragdos; Vulgate, smaragdus; Revised Version, marg., "emerald." The Hebrew word is from a root meaning "to glitter," "lighten," "flash." When held up to the sun, this gem shines like a burning coal, a dark-red glowing coal, and hence is called
"carbunculus", i.e., a little coal. It was one of the jewels in the first row of the high priest's breastplate. It has been conjectured by some that the garnet is meant. In Isa.54:12 the Hebrew word is 'ekdah, used in the prophetic description of the glory and beauty of the mansions above. Next to the diamond it is the hardest and most costly of all precious stones.

Carcase
Contact with a, made an Israelite ceremonially unclean, and made whatever he touched also unclean, according to the Mosaic law (Hag.2:13; comp. Num.19:16, 22; Lev.11:39).

Carchemish
Fortress of Chemosh, a city on the west bank of the Euphrates (Jer.46:2; 2 Chr.35:20), not, as was once supposed, the Circesium at the confluence of the Chebar and the Euphrates, but a city considerably higher up the river, and commanding the ordinary passage of the Euphrates; probably identical with Hierapolis. It was the capital of the kingdom of the northern Hittites. The Babylonian army, under Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, here met and conquered the army of Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt (B.C.607). It is mentioned in monuments in B.C.1600 and down to B.C.717.

Carmel
A park; generally with the article, "the park." (1.) A prominent headland of Central Palestine, consisting of several connected hills extending from the plain of Esdraelon to the sea, a distance of some 12 miles or more. At the east end, in its highest part, it is 1,728 feet high, and at the west end it forms a promontory to the bay of Acre about 600 feet above the sea. It lay within the tribe of Asher. It was here, at the east end of the ridge, at a place called el-Mukhrakah (i.e., the place of burning), that Elijah brought back the people to their allegiance to God, and slew the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18). Here were consumed the "fifties" of the royal guard; and here also Elisha received the visit of the bereaved mother whose son was restored by him to life (2 Kings 4:25-37). "No mountain in or around Palestine retains its ancient beauty so much as Carmel. Two or three villages and some scattered cottages are found on it; its groves are few but luxuriant; it is no place for crags and precipices or rocks of wild goats; but its surface is covered with a rich and constant verdure." "The whole mountain-side is dressed with blossom, and flowering shrubs, and fragrant herbs." The western extremity of the ridge is, however, more rocky and bleak than the eastern. The head of the bride in Cant.7:5 is compared to Carmel. It is ranked with Bashan on account of its rich pastures (Isa.33:9; Jer.50:19; Amos 1:2). The whole ridge is deeply furrowed with rocky ravines filled with dense jungle. There are many caves in its sides, which at one time were inhabited by swarms of monks. These caves are referred to in Amos 9:3. To them Elijah and Elisha often resorted (1 Kings 18:19, 42; 2 Kings 2:25). On its north-west summit there is an ancient establishment of Carmelite monks. Vineyards have recently been planted on the mount by the German colonists of Haifa. The modern Arabic name of the mount is Kurmul, but more commonly Jebel Mar Elyas, i.e., Mount St. Elias, from the Convent of Elias.

(2.) A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.15:55), the residence of Nabal (1 Sam.25:2, 5, 7, 40), and the native place of Abigail, who became David's wife (1 Sam.27:3). Here king Uzziah had his vineyards (2 Chr.26:10). The ruins of this town still remain under the name of Kurmul, about 10 miles south-south-east of Hebron, close to those of Maon.

Carmi
Vine-dresser. (1.) The last named of the four sons of Reuben (Gen.46:9).

(2.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr.4:1). He is elsewhere (2:18) called Caleb (q.v.).

(3.) The son of Zimri, and the father of Achan (Josh.7:1), "the troubler of Israel."

Carnal
Unconverted men are so called (1 Cor.3:3). They are represented as of a "carnal mind, which is enmity against God" (Rom.8:6, 7). Enjoyments that minister to the wants and desires of man's animal nature are so called (Rom.15:27; 1 Cor.9:11). The ceremonial of the Mosaic law is spoken of as "carnal," because it related to things outward, the bodies of men and of animals, and the purification of the flesh (Heb.7:16; 9:10). The weapons of Christian warfare are "not carnal", that is, they are not of man's device, nor are wielded by human power (2 Cor.10:4).

Carpenter
An artificer in stone, iron, and copper, as well as in wood (2 Sam.5:11; 1 Chr.14:1; Mark 6:3). The tools used by carpenters are mentioned in 1 Sam.13:19, 20; Judg.4:21; Isa.10:15; 44:13. It was said of our Lord, "Is not this the carpenter's son?" (Matt.13:55); also, "Is not this the carpenter?" (Mark 6:3). Every Jew, even the rabbis, learned some handicraft: Paul was a tentmaker. "In the cities the carpenters would be Greeks, and skilled workmen; the carpenter of a provincial village could only have held a very humble position, and secured a very moderate competence."

Carriage
In the Authorized Version this word is found as the rendering of many different words. In Judg.18:21 it means valuables, wealth, or booty. In Isa.46:1 (R.V., "the things that ye carried about") the word means a load for a beast of burden. In 1 Sam.17:22 and Isa.10:28 it is the rendering of a word ("stuff" in 1 Sam.10:22) meaning implements, equipments, baggage. The phrase in Acts 21:15, "We took up our carriages," means properly, "We packed up our baggage," as in the Revised Version.

Cart
A vehicle moving on wheels, and usually drawn by oxen (2 Sam.6:3). The Hebrew word thus rendered, 'agalah (1 Sam.6:7, 8), is also rendered "wagon" (Gen.45:19). It is used also to denote a war-chariot (Ps.46:9). Carts were used for the removal of the ark and its sacred utensils (Num.7:3, 6). After retaining the ark amongst them for seven months, the Philistines sent it back to the Israelites. On this occasion they set it in a new cart, probably a rude construction, with solid wooden wheels like that still used in Western Asia, which was drawn by two milch cows, which conveyed it straight to Beth-shemesh.

A "cart rope," for the purpose of fastening loads on carts, is used (Isa.5:18) as a symbol of the power of sinful pleasures or habits over him who indulges them. (See [102]CORD.) In Syria and Palestine wheel-carriages for any other purpose than the conveyance of agricultural produce are almost unknown.

Carve
The arts of engraving and carving were much practised among the Jews. They were practised in connection with the construction of the tabernacle and the temple (Ex.31:2, 5; 35:33; 1 Kings 6:18, 35; Ps.74:6), as well as in the ornamentation of the priestly dresses (Ex.28:9-36; Zech.3:9; 2 Chr.2:7, 14). Isaiah (44:13-17) gives a minute description of the process of carving idols of wood.

Casement
A barrier of open-work placed before windows (Prov.7:6). In Judg.5:28 the Hebrew word is rendered "lattice," in the LXX. "network," an opening through which cool air is admitted.

Casiphia
Silver, a place between Babylon and Jerusalem, where Iddo resided (Ezra 8:17); otherwise unknown.

Casluhim
Fortified, a people descended from Mizraim (Gen.10:14; 1 Chr.1:12). Their original seat was probably somewhere in Lower Egypt, along the sea-coast to the south border of Palestine.

Cassia
(1.) Hebrew kiddah', i.e., "split." One of the principal spices of the holy anointing oil (Ex.30:24), and an article of commerce (Ezek.27:19). It is the inner bark of a tree resembling the cinnamon (q.v.), the Cinnamomum cassia of botanists, and was probably imported from India.

(2.) Hebrew pl. ketzi'oth (Ps.45:8). Mentioned in connection with myrrh and aloes as being used to scent garments. It was probably prepared from the peeled bark, as the Hebrew word suggests, of some kind of cinnamon.

Castaway
Gr. adokimos, (1 Cor.9:27), one regarded as unworthy (R.V., "rejected"); elsewhere rendered "reprobate" (2 Tim.3:8, etc.); "rejected" (Heb.6:8, etc.).

Castle
A military fortress (1 Chr.11:7), also probably a kind of tower used by the priests for making known anything discovered at a distance (1 Chr.6:54). Castles are also mentioned (Gen.25:16) as a kind of watch-tower, from which shepherds kept watch over their flocks by night. The "castle" into which the chief captain commanded Paul to be brought was the quarters of the Roman soldiers in the fortress of Antonia (so called by Herod after his patron Mark Antony), which was close to the north-west corner of the temple (Acts 21:34), which it commanded.

Castor and Pollux
The "Dioscuri", two heroes of Greek and Roman mythology. Their figures were probably painted or sculptured on the prow of the ship which Luke refers to (Acts 28:11). They were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. They appeared in the heavens as the constellation Gemini.

Caterpillar
The consumer. Used in the Old Testament (1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chr.6:28; Ps.78:46; Isa.33:4) as the translation of a word (hasil) the root of which means "to devour" or "consume," and which is used also with reference to the locust in Deut.28:38. It may have been a species of locust, or the name of one of the transformations through which the locust passes, locust-grub. It is also found (Ps.105:34; Jer.51:14, 27; R.V., "cankerworm") as the rendering of a different Hebrew word, yelek, a word elsewhere rendered "cankerworm" (q.v.), Joel 1:4; 2:25. (See [103]LOCUST.)

Catholic epistles
The epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude; so called because they are addressed to Christians in general, and not to any church or person in particular.

Cattle
Abounded in the Holy Land. To the rearing and management of them the inhabitants chiefly devoted themselves (Deut.8:13; 12:21; 1 Sam.11:5; 12:3; Ps.144:14; Jer.3:24). They may be classified as,

(1.) Neat cattle. Many hundreds of these were yearly consumed in sacrifices or used for food. The finest herds were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num.32:4). Large herds also pastured on the wide fertile plains of Sharon. They were yoked to the plough (1 Kings 19:19), and were employed for carrying burdens (1 Chr.12:40). They were driven with a pointed rod (Judg.3:31) or goad (q.v.).

According to the Mosaic law, the mouths of cattle employed for the threshing-floor were not to be muzzled, so as to prevent them from eating of the provender over which they trampled (Deut.25:4). Whosoever stole and sold or slaughtered an ox must give five in satisfaction (Ex.22:1); but if it was found alive in the possession of him who stole it, he was required to make double restitution only (22:4). If an ox went astray, whoever found it was required to bring it back to its owner (23:4; Deut.22:1, 4). An ox and an ass could not be yoked together in the plough (Deut.22:10).

(2.) Small cattle. Next to herds of neat cattle, sheep formed the most important of the possessions of the inhabitants of Palestine (Gen.12:16; 13:5; 26:14; 21:27; 29:2, 3). They are frequently mentioned among the booty taken in war (Num.31:32; Josh.6:21; 1 Sam.14:32; 15:3). There were many who were owners of large flocks (1 Sam.25:2; 2 Sam.12:2, comp. Job 1:3). Kings also had shepherds "over their flocks" (1 Chr.27:31), from which they derived a large portion of their revenue (2 Sam.17:29; 1 Chr.12:40). The districts most famous for their flocks of sheep were the plain of Sharon (Isa.65: 10), Mount Carmel (Micah 7:14), Bashan and Gilead (Micah 7:14). In patriarchal times the flocks of sheep were sometimes tended by the daughters of the owners. Thus Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen.29:9); as also Zipporah and her six sisters had charge of their father Jethro's flocks (Ex.2:16). Sometimes they were kept by hired shepherds (John 10:12), and sometimes by the sons of the family (1 Sam.16:11; 17:15). The keepers so familiarized their sheep with their voices that they knew them, and followed them at their call. Sheep, but more especially rams and lambs, were frequently offered in sacrifice. The shearing of sheep was a great festive occasion (1 Sam.25:4; 2 Sam.13:23). They were folded at night, and guarded by their keepers against the attacks of the lion (Micah 5:8), the bear (1 Sam.17:34), and the wolf (Matt.10:16; John 10:12). They were liable to wander over the wide pastures and go astray (Ps.119:176; Isa.53:6; Hos.4:16; Matt.18:12).

Goats also formed a part of the pastoral wealth of Palestine (Gen.15:9; 32:14; 37:31). They were used both for sacrifice and for food (Deut.14:4), especially the young males (Gen.27:9, 14, 17; Judg.6:19; 13:15; 1 Sam.16:20). Goat's hair was used for making tent cloth (Ex.26:7; 36:14), and for mattresses and bedding (1 Sam.19:13, 16). (See [104]GOAT.)

Caul
(Heb. yothe'reth; i.e., "something redundant"), the membrane which covers the upper part of the liver (Ex.29:13, 22; Lev.3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; marg., "midriff"). In Hos.13:8 (Heb. seghor; i.e., "an enclosure") the pericardium, or parts about the heart, is meant.

Cauls
In Isa.3:18 this word (Heb. shebisim), in the marg. "networks," denotes network caps to contain the hair, worn by females. Others explain it as meaning "wreaths worn round the forehead, reaching from one ear to the other."

Causeway
A raised way, an ascent by steps, or a raised slope between Zion and the temple (1 Chr.26:16, 18). In 2 Chr.9:11 the same word is translated "terrace."

Cave
There are numerous natural caves among the limestone rocks of Syria, many of which have been artificially enlarged for various purposes.

The first notice of a cave occurs in the history of Lot (Gen.19:30).

The next we read of is the cave of Machpelah (q.v.), which Abraham purchased from the sons of Heth (Gen.25:9, 10). It was the burying-place of Sarah and of Abraham himself, also of Isaac, Rebekah, Leah, and Jacob (Gen.49:31; 50:13).

The cave of Makkedah, into which the five Amorite kings retired after their defeat by Joshua (10:16, 27).

The cave of Adullam (q.v.), an immense natural cavern, where David hid himself from Saul (1 Sam.22:1, 2).

The cave of Engedi (q.v.), now called Ain Jidy, i.e., the "Fountain of the Kid", where David cut off the skirt of Saul's robe (24:4). Here he also found a shelter for himself and his followers to the number of 600 (23:29; 24:1). "On all sides the country is full of caverns which might serve as lurking-places for David and his men, as they do for outlaws at the present day."

The cave in which Obadiah hid the prophets (1 Kings 18:4) was probably in the north, but it cannot be identified.

The cave of Elijah (1 Kings 19:9), and the "cleft" of Moses on Horeb (Ex.33:22), cannot be determined.

In the time of Gideon the Israelites took refuge from the Midianites in dens and caves, such as abounded in the mountain regions of Manasseh (Judg.6:2).

Caves were frequently used as dwelling-places (Num.24:21; Cant.2:14; Jer.49:16; Obad.1:3). "The excavations at Deir Dubban, on the south side of the wady leading to Santa Hanneh, are probably the dwellings of the Horites," the ancient inhabitants of Idumea Proper. The pits or cavities in rocks were also sometimes used as prisons (Isa.24:22; 51:14; Zech.9:11). Those which had niches in their sides were occupied as burying-places (Ezek.32:23; John 11:38).

Cedar
(Heb. e'rez, Gr. kedros, Lat. cedrus), a tree very frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was stately (Ezek.31:3-5), long-branched (Ps.80:10; 92:12; Ezek.31:6-9), odoriferous (Cant.4:11; Hos.14:6), durable, and therefore much used for boards, pillars, and ceilings (1 Kings 6:9, 10; 7:2; Jer.22:14), for masts (Ezek.27:5), and for carved images (Isa.44:14).

It grew very abundantly in Palestine, and particularly on Lebanon, of which it was "the glory" (Isa.35:2; 60:13). Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar trees from Lebanon for various purposes connected with the construction of the temple and the king's palace (2 Sam.5:11; 7:2, 7; 1 Kings 5:6, 8, 10; 6:9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 20; 7:2, 3, 7, 11, 12; 9:11, etc.). Cedars were used also in the building of the second temple under Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:7).

Of the ancient cedars of Lebanon there remain now only some seven or eight. They are not standing together. But beside them there are found between three hundred and four hundred of younger growth. They stand in an amphitheatre fronting the west, about 6,400 feet above the level of the sea.

The cedar is often figuratively alluded to in the sacred Scriptures. "The mighty conquerors of olden days, the despots of Assyria and the Pharaohs of Egypt, the proud and idolatrous monarchs of Judah, the Hebrew commonwealth itself, the war-like Ammonites of patriarchal times, and the moral majesty of the Messianic age, are all compared to the towering cedar, in its royal loftiness and supremacy (Isa.2:13; Ezek.17:3, 22, 23, 31:3-9; Amos 2:9; Zech.11:1, 2; Job 40:17; Ps.29:5; 80:10; 92:12, etc).", Groser's Scrip. Nat. Hist. (See [105]BOX-TREE.)

Cedron
The black torrent, the brook flowing through the ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John 18:1). (See [106]KIDRON.)

Ceiling
The covering (1 Kings 7:3, 7) of the inside roof and walls of a house with planks of wood (2 Chr.3:5; Jer.22:14). Ceilings were sometimes adorned with various ornaments in stucco, gold, silver, gems, and ivory. The ceilings of the temple and of Solomon's palace are described 1 Kings 6:9, 15; 7:3; 2 Chr.3:5, 9.

Cellar
A subterranean vault (1 Chr.27:28), a storehouse. The word is also used to denote the treasury of the temple (1 Kings 7:51) and of the king (14:26). The Hebrew word is rendered "garner" in Joel 1:17, and "armoury" in Jer.50:25.

Cenchrea
Millet, the eastern harbour of Corinth, from which it was distant about 9 miles east, and the outlet for its trade with the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean. When Paul returned from his second missionary journey to Syria, he sailed from this port (Acts 18:18). In Rom.16:1 he speaks as if there were at the time of his writing that epistle an organized church there. The western harbour of Corinth was Lechaeum, about a mile and a half from the city. It was the channel of its trade with Italy and the west.

Censer
The vessel in which incense was presented on "the golden altar" before the Lord in the temple (Ex.30:1-9). The priest filled the censer with live coal from the sacred fire on the altar of burnt-offering, and having carried it into the sanctuary, there threw upon the burning coals the sweet incense (Lev.16:12, 13), which sent up a cloud of smoke, filling the apartment with fragrance. The censers in daily use were of brass (Num.16:39), and were designated by a different Hebrew name, miktereth (2 Chr.26:19; Ezek.8:11): while those used on the day of Atonement were of gold, and were denoted by a word (mahtah) meaning "something to take fire with;" LXX. pureion = a fire-pan. Solomon prepared for the temple censers of pure gold (1 Kings 7:50; 2 Chr.4:22). The angel in the Apocalypse is represented with a golden censer (Rev.8:3, 5). Paul speaks of the golden censer as belonging to the tabernacle (Heb.9:4). The Greek word thumiaterion, here rendered "censer," may more appropriately denote, as in the margin of Revised Version, "the altar of incense." Paul does not here say that the thumiaterion was in the holiest, for it was in the holy place, but that the holiest had it, i.e., that it belonged to the holiest (1 Kings 6:22). It was intimately connected with the high priest's service in the holiest.

The manner in which the censer is to be used is described in Num.4:14; Lev.16:12.

Census
There are five instances of a census of the Jewish people having been taken. (1.) In the fourth month after the Exodus, when the people were encamped at Sinai. The number of men from twenty years old and upward was then 603,550 (Ex.38:26). (2.) Another census was made just before the entrance into Canaan, when the number was found to be 601,730, showing thus a small decrease (Num.26:51). (3.) The next census was in the time of David, when the number, exclusive of the tribes of Levi and Benjamin, was found to be 1,300,000 (2 Sam.24:9; 1 Chr.21:5). (4.) Solomon made a census of the foreigners in the land, and found 153,600 able-bodied workmen (2 Chr.2:17, 18). (5.) After the return from Exile the whole congregation of Israel was numbered, and found to amount to 42,360 (Ezra 2:64). A census was made by the Roman government in the time of our Lord (Luke 2:1). (See [107]TAXING.)

Centurion
A Roman officer in command of a hundred men (Mark 15:39, 44, 45). Cornelius, the first Gentile convert, was a centurion (Acts 10:1, 22). Other centurions are mentioned in Matt.8:5, 8, 13; Luke 7:2, 6; Acts 21:32; 22:25, 26; 23:17, 23; 24:23; 27:1, 6, 11, 31, 43; 28:16. A centurion watched the crucifixion of our Lord (Matt.27:54; Luke 23:47), and when he saw the wonders attending it, exclaimed, "Truly this man was the Son of God." "The centurions mentioned in the New Testament are uniformly spoken of in terms of praise, whether in the Gospels or in the Acts. It is interesting to compare this with the statement of Polybius (vi.24), that the centurions were chosen by merit, and so were men remarkable not so much for their daring courage as for their deliberation, constancy, and strength of mind.", Dr. Maclear's N. T. Hist.

Cephas
A Syriac surname given by Christ to Simon (John 1:42), meaning "rock." The Greeks translated it by Petros, and the Latins by Petrus.

Cesarea
See [108]CAESAREA.

Chaff
The refuse of winnowed corn. It was usually burned (Ex.15:7; Isa.5:24; Matt.3:12). This word sometimes, however, means dried grass or hay (Isa.5:24; 33:11). Chaff is used as a figure of abortive wickedness (Ps.1:4; Matt.3:12). False doctrines are also called chaff (Jer.23:28), or more correctly rendered "chopped straw." The destruction of the wicked, and their powerlessness, are likened to the carrying away of chaff by the wind (Isa.17:13; Hos.13:3; Zeph.2:2).

Chain
(1.) A part of the insignia of office. A chain of gold was placed about Joseph's neck (Gen.41:42); and one was promised to Daniel (5:7). It is used as a symbol of sovereignty (Ezek.16:11). The breast-plate of the high-priest was fastened to the ephod by golden chains (Ex.39:17, 21).

(2.) It was used as an ornament (Prov.1:9; Cant.1:10). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with chains (Judg.8:21, 26).

(3.) Chains were also used as fetters wherewith prisoners were bound (Judg.16:21; 2 Sam.3:34; 2 Kings 25:7; Jer.39:7). Paul was in this manner bound to a Roman soldier (Acts 28:20; Eph.6:20; 2 Tim.1:16). Sometimes, for the sake of greater security, the prisoner was attached by two chains to two soldiers, as in the case of Peter (Acts 12:6).

Chalcedony
Mentioned only in Rev.21:19, as one of the precious stones in the foundation of the New Jerusalem. The name of this stone is derived from Chalcedon, where it is said to have been first discovered. In modern mineralogy this is the name of an agate-like quartz of a bluish colour. Pliny so names the Indian ruby. The mineral intended in Revelation is probably the Hebrew nophekh, translated "emerald" (Ex.28:18; 39:11; Ezek.27:16; 28:13). It is rendered "anthrax" in the LXX., and "carbunculus" in the Vulgate. (See [109]CARBUNCLE.)

Chaldea
The southern portion of Babylonia, Lower Mesopotamia, lying chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates, but commonly used of the whole of the Mesopotamian plain. The Hebrew name is Kasdim, which is usually rendered "Chaldeans" (Jer.50:10; 51:24, 35).

The country so named is a vast plain formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about 400 miles along the course of these rivers, and about 100 miles in average breadth. "In former days the vast plains of Babylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals and water-courses, which spread over the surface of the country like a network. The wants of a teeming population were supplied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands rising from a golden sea of waving corn stood frequent groves of palm-trees and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler or traveller their grateful and highly-valued shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine."

Recent discoveries, more especially in Babylonia, have thrown much light on the history of the Hebrew patriarchs, and have illustrated or confirmed the Biblical narrative in many points. The ancestor of the Hebrew people, Abram, was, we are told, born at "Ur of the Chaldees." "Chaldees" is a mistranslation of the Hebrew Kasdim, Kasdim being the Old Testament name of the Babylonians, while the Chaldees were a tribe who lived on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and did not become a part of the Babylonian population till the time of Hezekiah. Ur was one of the oldest and most famous of the Babylonian cities. Its site is now called Mugheir, or Mugayyar, on the western bank of the Euphrates, in Southern Babylonia. About a century before the birth of Abram it was ruled by a powerful dynasty of kings. Their conquests extended to Elam on the one side, and to the Lebanon on the other. They were followed by a dynasty of princes whose capital was Babylon, and who seem to have been of South Arabian origin. The founder of the dynasty was Sumu-abi ("Shem is my father"). But soon afterwards Babylonia fell under Elamite dominion. The kings of Babylon were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Elam, and a rival kingdom to that of Babylon, and governed by Elamites, sprang up at Larsa, not far from Ur, but on the opposite bank of the river. In the time of Abram the king of Larsa was Eri-Aku, the son of an Elamite prince, and Eri-Aku, as has long been recognized, is the Biblical "Arioch king of Ellasar" (Gen.14:1). The contemporaneous king of Babylon in the north, in the country termed Shinar in Scripture, was Khammu-rabi. (See [110]BABYLON; [111]ABRAHAM; [112]AMRAPHEL.)

Chaldee language
Employed by the sacred writers in certain portions of the Old Testament, viz., Dan.2:4-7, 28; Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Gen.31:46; Jer.10:11. It is the Aramaic dialect, as it is sometimes called, as distinguished from the Hebrew dialect. It was the language of commerce and of social intercourse in Western Asia, and after the Exile gradually came to be the popular language of Palestine. It is called "Syrian" in 2 Kings 18:26. Some isolated words in this language are preserved in the New Testament (Matt.5:22; 6:24; 16:17; 27:46; Mark 3:17; 5:41; 7:34; 14:36; Acts 1:19; 1 Cor.16:22). These are specimens of the vernacular language of Palestine at that period. The term "Hebrew" was also sometimes applied to the Chaldee because it had become the language of the Hebrews (John 5:2; 19:20).

Chaldees
Or Chaldeans, the inhabitants of the country of which Babylon was the capital. They were so called till the time of the Captivity (2 Kings 25; Isa.13:19; 23:13), when, particularly in the Book of Daniel (5:30; 9:1), the name began to be used with special reference to a class of learned men ranked with the magicians and astronomers. These men cultivated the ancient Cushite language of the original inhabitants of the land, for they had a "learning" and a "tongue" (1:4) of their own. The common language of the country at that time had become assimilated to the Semitic dialect, especially through the influence of the Assyrians, and was the language that was used for all civil purposes. The Chaldeans were the learned class, interesting themselves in science and religion, which consisted, like that of the ancient Arabians and Syrians, in the worship of the heavenly bodies. There are representations of this priestly class, of magi and diviners, on the walls of the Assyrian palaces.

Chamber
"on the wall," which the Shunammite prepared for the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 4:10), was an upper chamber over the porch through the hall toward the street. This was the "guest chamber" where entertainments were prepared (Mark 14:14). There were also "chambers within chambers" (1 Kings 22:25; 2 Kings 9:2). To enter into a chamber is used metaphorically of prayer and communion with God (Isa.26:20). The "chambers of the south" (Job 9:9) are probably the constelations of the southern hemisphere. The "chambers of imagery", i.e., chambers painted with images, as used by Ezekiel (8:12), is an expression denoting the vision the prophet had of the abominations practised by the Jews in Jerusalem.

Chambering
(Rom.13:13), wantonness, impurity.

Chamberlain
A confidential servant of the king (Gen.37:36; 39:1). In Rom.16:23 mention is made of "Erastus the chamberlain." Here the word denotes the treasurer of the city, or the quaestor, as the Romans styled him. He is almost the only convert from the higher ranks of whom mention is made (comp. Acts 17:34). Blastus, Herod's "chamberlain" (Acts 12:20), was his personal attendant or valet-de-chambre. The Hebrew word saris, thus translated in Esther 1:10, 15; 2:3, 14, 21, etc., properly means an eunuch (as in the marg.), as it is rendered in Isa.39:7; 56:3.

Chameleon
A species of lizard which has the faculty of changing the colour of its skin. It is ranked among the unclean animals in Lev.11:30, where the Hebrew word so translated is coah (R.V., "land crocodile"). In the same verse the Hebrew tanshemeth, rendered in Authorized Version "mole," is in Revised Version "chameleon," which is the correct rendering. This animal is very common in Egypt and in the Holy Land, especially in the Jordan valley.

Chamois
Only in Deut.14:5 (Heb. zemer), an animal of the deer or gazelle species. It bears this Hebrew name from its leaping or springing. The animal intended is probably the wild sheep (Ovis tragelephus), which is still found in Sinai and in the broken ridges of Stony Arabia. The LXX. and Vulgate render the word by camelopardus, i.e., the giraffe; but this is an animal of Central Africa, and is not at all known in Syria.

Champion
(1 Sam.17:4, 23), properly "the man between the two," denoting the position of Goliath between the two camps. Single combats of this kind at the head of armies were common in ancient times. In ver.51 this word is the rendering of a different Hebrew word, and properly denotes "a mighty man."

Chance
(Luke 10:31). "It was not by chance that the priest came down by that road at that time, but by a specific arrangement and in exact fulfilment of a plan; not the plan of the priest, nor the plan of the wounded traveller, but the plan of God. By coincidence (Gr. sungkuria) the priest came down, that is, by the conjunction of two things, in fact, which were previously constituted a pair in the providence of God. In the result they fell together according to the omniscient Designer's plan. This is the true theory of the divine government." Compare the meeting of Philip with the Ethiopian (Acts 8:26, 27). There is no "chance" in God's empire. "Chance" is only another word for our want of knowledge as to the way in which one event falls in with another (1 Sam.6:9; Eccl.9:11).

Chancellor
One who has judicial authority, literally, a "lord of judgement;" a title given to the Persian governor of Samaria (Ezra 4:8, 9, 17).

Changes of raiment
Were reckoned among the treasures of rich men (Gen.45:22; Judg.14:12, 13; 2 Kings 5:22, 23).

Channel
(1.) The bed of the sea or of a river (Ps.18:15; Isa.8:7).

(2.) The "chanelbone" (Job 31:22 marg.), properly "tube" or "shaft," an old term for the collar-bone.

Chapel
A holy place or sanctuary, occurs only in Amos 7:13, where one of the idol priests calls Bethel "the king's chapel."

Chapiter
The ornamental head or capital of a pillar. Three Hebrew words are so rendered. (1.) Cothereth (1 Kings 7:16; 2 Kings 25:17; 2 Chr.4:12), meaning a "diadem" or "crown." (2.) Tzepheth (2 Chr.3:15). (3.) Rosh (Ex.36:38; 38:17, 19, 28), properly a "head" or "top."

Chapter
The several books of the Old and New Testaments were from an early time divided into chapters. The Pentateuch was divided by the ancient Hebrews into 54 parshioth or sections, one of which was read in the synagogue every Sabbath day (Acts.13:15). These sections were afterwards divided into 669 sidrim or orders of unequal length. The Prophets were divided in somewhat the same manner into haphtaroth or passages.

In the early Latin and Greek versions of the Bible, similar divisions of the several books were made. The New Testament books were also divided into portions of various lengths under different names, such as titles and heads or chapters.

In modern times this ancient example was imitated, and many attempts of the kind were made before the existing division into chapters was fixed. The Latin Bible published by Cardinal Hugo of St. Cher in A.D.1240 is generally regarded as the first Bible that was divided into our present chapters, although it appears that some of the chapters were fixed as early as A.D.1059. This division into chapters came gradually to be adopted in the published editions of the Hebrew, with some few variations, and of the Greek Scriptures, and hence of other versions.

Charashim
Craftsmen, a valley named in 1 Chr.4:14. In Neh.11:35 the Hebrew word is rendered "valley of craftsmen" (R.V. marg., Geha-rashim). Nothing is known of it.

Charger
A bowl or deep dish. The silver vessels given by the heads of the tribes for the services of the tabernacle are so named (Num.7:13, etc.). The "charger" in which the Baptist's head was presented was a platter or flat wooden trencher (Matt.14:8, 11; Mark 6:25, 28). The chargers of gold and silver of Ezra 1:9 were probably basins for receiving the blood of sacrifices.

Chariot
A vehicle generally used for warlike purposes. Sometimes, though but rarely, it is spoken of as used for peaceful purposes.

The first mention of the chariot is when Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's second state chariot (Gen.41:43); and the next, when he went out in his own chariot to meet his father Jacob (46:29). Chariots formed part of the funeral procession of Jacob (50:9). When Pharaoh pursued the Israelites he took 600 war-chariots with him (Ex.14:7). The Canaanites in the valleys of Palestine had chariots of iron (Josh.17:18; Judg.1:19). Jabin, the king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Judg.4:3); and in Saul's time the Philistines had 30,000. In his wars with the king of Zobah and with the Syrians, David took many chariots among the spoils (2 Sam.8:4; 10:18). Solomon maintained as part of his army 1,400 chariots (1 Kings 10:26), which were chiefly imported from Egypt (29). From this time forward they formed part of the armies of Israel (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Kings 9:16, 21; 13:7, 14; 18:24; 23:30).

In the New Testament we have only one historical reference to the use of chariots, in the case of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts.8:28, 29, 38).

This word is sometimes used figuratively for hosts (Ps.68:17; 2 Kings 6:17). Elijah, by his prayers and his counsel, was "the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof." The rapid agency of God in the phenomena of nature is also spoken of under the similitude of a chariot (Ps.104:3; Isa.66:15; Hab.3:8).

Chariot of the cherubim (1 Chr.28:18), the chariot formed by the two cherubs on the mercy-seat on which the Lord rides.

Chariot cities were set apart for storing the war-chariots in time of peace (2 Chr.1:14).

Chariot horses were such as were peculiarly fitted for service in chariots (2 Kings 7:14).

Chariots of war are described in Ex.14:7; 1 Sam.13:5; 2 Sam.8:4; 1 Chr.18:4; Josh.11:4; Judg.4:3, 13. They were not used by the Israelites till the time of David. Elijah was translated in a "chariot of fire" (2 Kings 2:11). Comp.2 Kings 6:17. This vision would be to Elisha a source of strength and
encouragement, for now he could say, "They that be with us are more than they that be with them."

Charity
(1 Cor.13), the rendering in the Authorized Version of the word which properly denotes love, and is frequently so rendered (always so in the Revised Version). It is spoken of as the greatest of the three Christian graces (1 Cor.12:31-13:13).

Charmer
One who practises serpent-charming (Ps.58:5; Jer.8:17; Eccl.10:11). It was an early and universal opinion that the most venomous reptiles could be made harmless by certain charms or by sweet sounds. It is well known that there are jugglers in India and in other Eastern lands who practise this art at the present day.

In Isa.19:3 the word "charmers" is the rendering of the Hebrew 'ittim, meaning, properly, necromancers (R.V. marg., "whisperers"). In Deut.18:11 the word "charmer" means a dealer in spells, especially one who, by binding certain knots, was supposed thereby to bind a curse or a blessing on its object. In Isa.3:3 the words "eloquent orator" should be, as in the Revised Version, "skilful enchanter."

Charran
Another form (Acts 7:2, 4) of Haran (q.v.).

Chebar
Length, a river in the "land of the Chaldeans" (Ezek.1:3), on the banks of which were located some of the Jews of the Captivity (Ezek.1:1; 3:15, 23; 10:15, 20, 22). It has been supposed to be identical with the river Habor, the Chaboras, or modern Khabour, which falls into the Euphrates at Circesium. To the banks of this river some of the Israelites were removed by the Assyrians (2 Kings 17:6). An opinion that has much to support it is that the "Chebar" was the royal canal of Nebuchadnezzar, the Nahr Malcha, the greatest in Mesopotamia, which connected the Tigris with the Euphrates, in the excavation of which the Jewish captives were probably employed.

Chedorlaomer
(= Khudur-Lagamar of the inscriptions), king of Elam. Many centuries before the age of Abraham, Canaan and even the Sinaitic peninsula had been conquered by Babylonian kings, and in the time of Abraham himself Babylonia was ruled by a dynasty which claimed sovereignity over Syria and Palestine. The kings of the dynasty bore names which were not Babylonian, but at once South Arabic and Hebrew. The most famous king of the dynasty was Khammu-rabi, who united Babylonia under one rule, and made Babylon its capital. When he ascended the throne, the country was under the suzerainty of the Elamites, and was divided into two kingdoms, that of Babylon (the Biblical Shinar) and that of Larsa (the Biblical Ellasar). The king of Larsa was Eri-Aku ("the servant of the moon-god"), the son of an Elamite prince, Kudur-Mabug, who is entitled "the father of the land of the Amorites." A recently discovered tablet enumerates among the enemies of Khammu-rabi, Kudur-Lagamar ("the servant of the goddess Lagamar") or Chedorlaomer, Eri-Aku or Arioch, and Tudkhula or Tidal. Khammu-rabi, whose name is also read Ammi-rapaltu or Amraphel by some scholars, succeeded in overcoming Eri-Aku and driving the Elamites out of Babylonia. Assur-bani-pal, the last of the Assyrian conquerors, mentions in two inscriptions that he took Susa 1635 years after Kedor-nakhunta, king of Elam, had conquered Babylonia. It was in the year B.C.660 that Assur-bani-pal took Susa.

Cheek
Smiting on the cheek was accounted a grievous injury and insult (Job 16:10; Lam.3:30; Micah 5:1). The admonition (Luke 6:29), "Unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other," means simply, "Resist not evil" (Matt.5:39; 1 Pet.2:19-23). Ps.3:7 = that God had deprived his enemies of the power of doing him injury.

Cheese
(A.S. cese). This word occurs three times in the Authorized Version as the translation of three different Hebrew words: (1.) 1 Sam.17:18, "ten cheeses;" i.e., ten sections of curd. (2.) 2 Sam.17:29, "cheese of kine" = perhaps curdled milk of kine. The Vulgate version reads "fat calves." (3.) Job 10:10, curdled milk is meant by the word.

Chemarim
Black, (Zeph.1:4; rendered "idolatrous priests" in 2 Kings 23:5, and "priests" in Hos.10:5). Some derive this word from the Assyrian Kamaru, meaning "to throw down," and interpret it as describing the idolatrous priests who prostrate themselves before the idols. Others regard it as meaning "those who go about in black," or "ascetics."

Chemosh
The destroyer, subduer, or fish-god, the god of the Moabites (Num.21:29; Jer.48:7, 13, 46). The worship of this god, "the abomination of Moab," was introduced at Jerusalem by Solomon (1 Kings 11:7), but was abolished by Josiah (2 Kings 23:13). On the "Moabite Stone" (q.v.), Mesha (2 Kings 3:5) ascribes his victories over the king of Israel to this god, "And Chemosh drove him before my sight."

Chenaanah
Merchant. (1.) A Benjamite (1 Chr.7:10). (2.) The father of Zedekiah (1 Kings 22:11, 24).

Chenaiah
Whom Jehovah hath made. "Chief of the Levites," probably a Kohathite (1 Chr.15:22), and therefore not the same as mentioned in 26:29.

Chephirah
Village, one of the four cities of the Gibeonitish Hivites with whom Joshua made a league (9:17). It belonged to Benjamin. It has been identified with the modern Kefireh, on the west confines of Benjamin, about 2 miles west of Ajalon and 11 from Jerusalem.

Cherethim
(Ezek.25:16), more frequently Cherethites, the inhabitants of Southern Philistia, the Philistines (Zeph.2:5). The Cherethites and the Pelethites were David's life-guards (1 Sam.30:14; 2 Sam.8:18; 20:7, 23; 23:23). This name is by some interpreted as meaning "Cretans," and by others "executioners," who were ready to execute the king's sentence of death (Gen.37:36, marg.; 1 Kings 2:25).

Cherith
A cutting; separation; a gorge, a torrent-bed or winter-stream, a "brook," in whose banks the prophet Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (1 Kings 17:3, 5). It has by some been identified as the Wady el-Kelt behind Jericho, which is formed by the junction of many streams flowing from the mountains west of Jericho. It is dry in summer. Travellers have described it as one of the wildest ravines of this wild region, and peculiarly fitted to afford a secure asylum to the persecuted. But if the prophet's interview with Ahab was in Samaria, and he thence journeyed toward the east, it is probable that he crossed Jordan and found refuge in some of the ravines of Gilead. The "brook" is said to have been "before Jordan," which probably means that it opened toward that river, into which it flowed. This description would apply to the east as well as to the west of Jordan. Thus Elijah's hiding-place may have been the Jermuk, in the territory of the half-tribe of Manasseh.

Cherub
Plural cherubim, the name of certain symbolical figures frequently mentioned in Scripture. They are first mentioned in connection with the expulsion of our first parents from Eden (Gen.3:24). There is no intimation given of their shape or form. They are next mentioned when Moses was commanded to provide furniture for the tabernacle (Ex.25:17-20; 26:1, 31). God promised to commune with Moses "from between the cherubim" (25:22). This expression was afterwards used to denote the Divine abode and presence (Num.7:89; 1 Sam.4:4; Isa.37:16; Ps.80:1; 99:1). In Ezekiel's vision (10:1-20) they appear as living creatures supporting the throne of God. From Ezekiel's description of them (1;10; 41:18, 19), they appear to have been compound figures, unlike any real object in nature; artificial images possessing the features and properties of several animals. Two cherubim were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark; two of colossal size overshadowed it in Solomon's temple. Ezekiel (1:4-14) speaks of four; and this number of "living creatures" is mentioned in Rev.4:6. Those on the ark are called the "cherubim of glory" (Heb.9:5), i.e., of the Shechinah, or cloud of glory, for on them the visible glory of God rested. They were placed one at each end of the mercy-seat, with wings stretched upward, and their faces "toward each other and toward the mercy-seat." They were anointed with holy oil, like the ark itself and the other sacred furniture.

The cherubim were symbolical. They were intended to represent spiritual existences in immediate contact with Jehovah. Some have regarded them as symbolical of the chief ruling power by which God carries on his operations in providence (Ps.18:10). Others interpret them as having reference to the redemption of men, and as symbolizing the great rulers or ministers of the church. Many other opinions have been held regarding them which need not be referred to here. On the whole, it seems to be most satisfactory to regard the interpretation of the symbol to be variable, as is the symbol itself.

Their office was, (1) on the expulsion of our first parents from Eden, to prevent all access to the tree of life; and (2) to form the throne and chariot of Jehovah in his manifestation of himself on earth. He dwelleth between and sitteth on the cherubim (1 Sam.4:4; Ps.80:1; Ezek.1:26, 28).

Chesalon
Strength; confidence, a place on the border of Judah, on the side of Mount Jearim (Josh.15:10); probably identified with the modern village of Kesla, on the western mountains of Judah.

Chesed
Gain, the son of Nahor (Gen.22:22).

Chesil
Ungodly, a town in the south of Judah (Josh.15:30); probably the same as Bethul (19:4) and Bethuel (1 Chr.4:30); now Khelasa.

Chest
(Heb. 'aron, generally rendered "ark"), the coffer into which the contributions for the repair of the temple were put (2 Kings 12:9, 10; 2 Chr.24:8, 10, 11). In Gen.50:26 it is rendered "coffin." In Ezek.27:24 a different Hebrew word, genazim (plur.), is used. It there means "treasure-chests."

Chestnut tree
(Heb. 'armon; i.e., "naked"), mentioned in connection with Jacob's artifice regarding the cattle (Gen.30:37). It is one of the trees of which, because of its strength and beauty, the Assyrian empire is likened (Ezek.31:8; R.V., "plane trees"). It is probably the Oriental plane tree (Platanus orientalis) that is intended. It is a characteristic of this tree that it annually sheds its outer bark, becomes "naked." The chestnut tree proper is not a native of Palestine.

Chesulloth
Fertile places; the loins, a town of Issachar, on the slopes of some mountain between Jezreel and Shunem (Josh.19:18). It has been identified with Chisloth-tabor, 2 1/2 miles to the west of Mount Tabor, and north of Jezreel; now Iksal.

Chezib
Deceitful, a town where Shelah, the son of Judah, was born (Gen.38:5). Probably the same as Achzib (q.v.).

Chidon
Dart, the name of the threshing-floor at which the death of Uzzah took place (1 Chr.13:9). In the parallel passage in Samuel (2 Sam.6:6) it is called "Nachon's threshing-floor." It was a place not far north-west from Jerusalem.

Chief of the three
A title given to Adino the Eznite, one of David's greatest heroes (2 Sam.23:8); also called Jashobeam (1 Chr.11:11).

Chief priest
See [113]PRIEST.

Chiefs of Asia
"Asiarchs," the title given to certain wealthy persons annually appointed to preside over the religious festivals and games in the various cities of proconsular Asia (Acts 19:31). Some of these officials appear to have been Paul's friends.

Child
This word has considerable latitude of meaning in Scripture. Thus Joseph is called a child at the time when he was probably about sixteen years of age (Gen.37:3); and Benjamin is so called when he was above thirty years (44:20). Solomon called himself a little child when he came to the kingdom (1 Kings 3:7).

The descendants of a man, however remote, are called his children; as, "the children of Edom," "the children of Moab," "the children of Israel."

In the earliest times mothers did not wean their children till they were from thirty months to three years old; and the day on which they were weaned was kept as a festival day (Gen.21:8; Ex.2:7, 9; 1 Sam.1:22-24; Matt.21:16). At the age of five, children began to learn the arts and duties of life under the care of their fathers (Deut.6:20-25; 11:19).

To have a numerous family was regarded as a mark of divine favour (Gen.11:30; 30:1; 1 Sam.2:5; 2 Sam.6:23; Ps.127:3; 128:3).

Figuratively the name is used for those who are ignorant or narrow-minded (Matt.11:16; Luke 7:32; 1 Cor.13:11). "When I was a child, I spake as a child." "Brethren, be not children in understanding" (1 Cor.14:20). "That we henceforth be no more children, tossed to and fro" (Eph.4:14).

Children are also spoken of as representing simplicity and humility (Matt.19:13-15; Mark 10:13-16; Luke 18:15-17). Believers are "children of light" (Luke 16:8; 1 Thess.5:5) and "children of obedience" (1 Pet.1:14).

Chileab
Protected by the father, David's second son by Abigail (2 Sam.3:3); called also Daniel (1 Chr.3:1). He seems to have died when young.

Chilion
The pining one, the younger son of Elimelech and Naomi, and husband of Orpah, Ruth's sister (Ruth 1:2; 4:9).

Chilmad
A place or country unknown which, along with Sheba and Asshur, traded with Tyre (Ezek.27:23).

Chimham
Pining, probably the youngest son of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam.19:37-40). The "habitation of Chimham" (Jer.41:17) was probably an inn or khan, which is the proper meaning of the Hebrew geruth, rendered "habitation", established in later times in his possession at Bethlehem, which David gave to him as a reward for his loyalty in accompanying him to Jerusalem after the defeat of Absalom (1 Kings 2:7). It has been supposed that, considering the stationary character of Eastern institutions, it was in the stable of this inn or caravanserai that our Saviour was born (Luke 2:7).

Chinnereth
Lyre, the singular form of the word (Deut.3:17; Josh.19:35), which is also used in the plural form, Chinneroth, the name of a fenced city which stood near the shore of the lake of Galilee, a little to the south of Tiberias. The town seems to have given its name to a district, as appears from 1 Kings 15:20, where the plural form of the word is used.

The Sea of Chinnereth (Num.34:11; Josh.13:27), or of Chinneroth (Josh.12: 3), was the "lake of Gennesaret" or "sea of Tiberias" (Deut.3:17; Josh.11:2). Chinnereth was probably an ancient Canaanitish name adopted by the Israelites into their language.

Chios
Mentioned in Acts 20:15, an island in the Aegean Sea, about 5 miles distant from the mainland, having a roadstead, in the shelter of which Paul and his companions anchored for a night when on his third missionary return journey. It is now called Scio.

Chisleu
The name adopted from the Babylonians by the Jews after the Captivity for the third civil, or ninth ecclesiastical, month (Neh.1:1; Zech.7:1). It corresponds nearly with the moon in November.

Chittim
Or Kittim, a plural form (Gen.10:4), the name of a branch of the descendants of Javan, the "son" of Japheth. Balaam foretold (Num.24:24) "that ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and afflict Eber." Daniel prophesied (11:30) that the ships of Chittim would come against the king of the north. It probably denotes Cyprus, whose ancient capital was called Kition by the Greeks.

The references elsewhere made to Chittim (Isa.23:1, 12; Jer.2:10; Ezek.27:6) are to be explained on the ground that while the name originally designated the Phoenicians only, it came latterly to be used of all the islands and various settlements on the sea-coasts which they had occupied, and then of the people who succeeded them when the Phoenician power decayed. Hence it designates generally the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean and the races that inhabit them.

Chiun
Occurs only in Amos 5:26 (R.V. marg., "shrine"). The LXX. translated the word by Rhephan, which became corrupted into Remphan, as used by Stephen (Acts 7:43; but R.V., "Rephan"). Probably the planet Saturn is intended by the name. Astrologers represented this planet as baleful in its influences, and hence the Phoenicians offered to it human sacrifices, especially children.

Chloe
Verdure, a female Christian (1 Cor.1:11), some of whose household had informed Paul of the divided state of the Corinthian church. Nothing is known of her.

Chor-ashan
Smoking furnace, one of the places where "David himself and his men were wont to haunt" (1 Sam.30:30, 31). It is probably identical with Ashan (Josh.15:42; 19:7), a Simeonite city in the Negeb, i.e., the south, belonging to Judah. The word ought, according to another reading, to be "Bor-ashan."

Chorazin
Named along with Bethsaida and Capernaum as one of the cities in which our Lord's "mighty works" were done, and which was doomed to woe because of signal privileges neglected (Matt.11:21; Luke 10:13). It has been identified by general consent with the modern Kerazeh, about 2 1/2 miles up the Wady Kerazeh from Capernaum; i.e., Tell Hum.

Chosen
Spoken of warriors (Ex.15:4; Judg.20:16), of the Hebrew nation (Ps.105:43; Deut.7:7), of Jerusalem as the seat of the temple (1 Kings 11:13). Christ is the "chosen" of God (Isa.42:1); and the apostles are "chosen" for their work (Acts 10:41). It is said with regard to those who do not profit by their opportunities that "many are called, but few are chosen" (Matt.20:16). (See [114]ELECTION.)

Chozeba
(1 Chr.4:22), the same as Chezib and Achzib, a place in the lowlands of Judah (Gen.38:5; Josh.15:44).

Christ
Anointed, the Greek translation of the Hebrew word rendered "Messiah" (q.v.), the official title of our Lord, occurring five hundred and fourteen times in the New Testament. It denotes that he was anointed or consecrated to his great redemptive work as Prophet, Priest, and King of his people. He is Jesus the Christ (Acts 17:3; 18:5; Matt.22:42), the Anointed One. He is thus spoken of by Isaiah (61:1), and by Daniel (9:24-26), who styles him "Messiah the Prince."

The Messiah is the same person as "the seed of the woman" (Gen.3:15), "the seed of Abraham" (Gen.22:18), the "Prophet like unto Moses" (Deut.18:15), "the priest after the order of Melchizedek" (Ps.110:4), "the rod out of the stem of Jesse" (Isa.11:1, 10), the "Immanuel," the virgin's son (Isa.7:14), "the branch of Jehovah" (Isa.4:2), and "the messenger of the covenant" (Mal.3:1). This is he "of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write." The Old Testament Scripture is full of prophetic declarations regarding the Great Deliverer and the work he was to accomplish. Jesus the Christ is Jesus the Great Deliverer, the Anointed One, the Saviour of men. This name denotes that Jesus was divinely appointed, commissioned, and accredited as the Saviour of men (Heb.5:4; Isa.11:2-4; 49:6; John 5:37; Acts 2:22).

To believe that "Jesus is the Christ" is to believe that he is the Anointed, the Messiah of the prophets, the Saviour sent of God, that he was, in a word, what he claimed to be. This is to believe the gospel, by the faith of which alone men can be brought unto God. That Jesus is the Christ is the testimony of God, and the faith of this constitutes a Christian (1 Cor.12:3; 1 John 5:1).

Christian
The name given by the Greeks or Romans, probably in reproach, to the followers of Jesus. It was first used at Antioch. The names by which the disciples were known among themselves were "brethren," "the faithful," "elect," "saints," "believers." But as distinguishing them from the multitude without, the name "Christian" came into use, and was universally accepted. This name occurs but three times in the New Testament (Acts 11:26; 26:28; 1 Pet.4:16).

Christs, False
Our Lord warned his disciples that they would arise (Matt.24:24). It is said that no fewer than twenty-four persons have at different times appeared (the last in 1682) pretending to be the Messiah of the prophets.

Chronicles
The words of the days, (1 Kings 14:19; 1 Chr.27:24), the daily or yearly records of the transactions of the kingdom; events recorded in the order of time.

Chronicles, Books of
The two books were originally one. They bore the title in the Massoretic Hebrew Dibre hayyamim, i.e., "Acts of the Days." This title was rendered by Jerome in his Latin version "Chronicon," and hence "Chronicles." In the Septuagint version the book is divided into two, and bears the title Paraleipomena, i.e., "things omitted," or "supplements", because containing many things omitted in the Books of Kings.

The contents of these books are comprehended under four heads. (1.) The first nine chapters of Book I. contain little more than a list of genealogies in the line of Israel down to the time of David. (2.) The remainder of the first book contains a history of the reign of David. (3.) The first nine chapters of Book II. contain the history of the reign of Solomon. (4.) The remaining chapters of the second book contain the history of the separate kingdom of Judah to the time of the return from Babylonian Exile.

The time of the composition of the Chronicles was, there is every ground to conclude, subsequent to the Babylonian Exile, probably between 450 and 435 B.C. The contents of this twofold book, both as to matter and form, correspond closely with this idea. The close of the book records the proclamation of Cyrus permitting the Jews to return to their own land, and this forms the opening passage of the Book of Ezra, which must be viewed as a continuation of the Chronicles. The peculiar form of the language, being Aramaean in its general character, harmonizes also with that of the books which were written after the Exile. The author was certainly contemporary with Zerubbabel, details of whose family history are given (1 Chr.3:19).

The time of the composition being determined, the question of the authorship may be more easily decided. According to Jewish tradition, which was universally received down to the middle of the seventeenth century, Ezra was regarded as the author of the Chronicles. There are many points of resemblance and of contact between the Chronicles and the Book of Ezra which seem to confirm this opinion. The conclusion of the one and the beginning of the other are almost identical in expression. In their spirit and characteristics they are the same, showing thus also an identity of authorship.

In their general scope and design these books are not so much historical as didactic. The principal aim of the writer appears to be to present moral and religious truth. He does not give prominence to political occurences, as is done in Samuel and Kings, but to ecclesiastical institutions. "The genealogies, so uninteresting to most modern readers, were really an important part of the public records of the Hebrew state. They were the basis on which not only the land was distributed and held, but the public services of the temple were arranged and conducted, the Levites and their descendants alone, as is well known, being entitled and first fruits set apart for that purpose." The "Chronicles" are an epitome of the sacred history from the days of Adam down to the return from Babylonian Exile, a period of about 3,500 years. The writer gathers up "the threads of the old national life broken by the Captivity."

The sources whence the chronicler compiled his work were public records, registers, and genealogical tables belonging to the Jews. These are referred to in the course of the book (1 Chr.27:24; 29:29; 2 Chr.9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18, 19; 27:7; 35:25). There are in Chronicles, and the books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, often verbal, proving that the writer both knew and used these records (1 Chr.17:18; comp.2 Sam.7:18-20; 1 Chr.19; comp.2 Sam.10, etc.).

As compared with Samuel and Kings, the Book of Chronicles omits many particulars there recorded (2 Sam.6:20-23; 9; 11; 14-19, etc.), and includes many things peculiar to itself (1 Chr.12; 22; 23-26; 27; 28; 29, etc.). Twenty whole chapters, and twenty-four parts of chapters, are occupied with matter not found elsewhere. It also records many things in fuller detail, as (e.g.) the list of David's heroes (1 Chr.12:1-37), the removal of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Mount Zion (1 Chr.13; 15:2-24; 16:4-43; comp.2 Sam.6), Uzziah's leprosy and its cause (2 Chr.26:16-21; comp.2 Kings 15:5), etc.

It has also been observed that another peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes modern and more common expressions for those that had then become unusual or obsolete. This is seen particularly in the substitution of modern names of places, such as were in use in the writer's day, for the old names; thus Gezer (1 Chr.20:4) is used instead of Gob (2 Sam.21:18), etc.

The Books of Chronicles are ranked among the khethubim or hagiographa. They are alluded to, though not directly quoted, in the New Testament (Heb.5:4; Matt.12:42; 23:35; Luke 1:5; 11:31, 51).

Chronicles of king David
(1 Chr.27:24) were statistical state records; one of the public sources from which the compiler of the Books of Chronicles derived information on various public matters.

Chronology
Is the arrangement of facts and events in the order of time. The writers of the Bible themselves do not adopt any standard era according to which they date events. Sometimes the years are reckoned, e.g., from the time of the Exodus (Num.1:1; 33:38; 1 Kings 6:1), and sometimes from the accession of kings (1 Kings 15:1, 9, 25, 33, etc.), and sometimes again from the return from Exile (Ezra 3:8).

Hence in constructing a system of Biblecal chronology, the plan has been adopted of reckoning the years from the ages of the patriarchs before the birth of their first-born sons for the period from the Creation to Abraham. After this period other data are to be taken into account in determining the relative sequence of events.

As to the patriarchal period, there are three principal systems of chronology: (1) that of the Hebrew text, (2) that of the Septuagint version, and (3) that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, as seen in the scheme on the opposite page.

The Samaritan and the Septuagint have considerably modified the Hebrew chronology. This modification some regard as having been wilfully made, and to be rejected. The same system of variations is observed in the chronology of the period between the Flood and Abraham. Thus:

Hebrew Septuigant Samaritan From the birth of Arphaxad, 2 years after the Flood, to the birth of Terah.220 1000 870 From the birth of Terah to the birth of Abraham.130 70 72

The Septuagint fixes on seventy years as the age of Terah at the birth of Abraham, from Gen.11:26; but a comparison of Gen.11:32 and Acts 7:4 with Gen.12:4 shows that when Terah died, at the age of two hundred and five years, Abraham was seventy-five years, and hence Terah must have been one hundred and thirty years when Abraham was born. Thus, including the two years from the Flood to the birth of Arphaxad, the period from the Flood to the birth of Abraham was three hundred and fifty-two years.

The next period is from the birth of Abraham to the Exodus. This, according to the Hebrew, extends to five hundred and five years. The difficulty here is as to the four hundred and thirty years mentioned Ex.12:40, 41; Gal.3:17. These years are regarded by some as dating from the covenant with Abraham (Gen.15), which was entered into soon after his sojourn in Egypt; others, with more probability, reckon these years from Jacob's going down into Egypt. (See [115]EXODUS.)

In modern times the systems of Biblical chronology that have been adopted are chiefly those of Ussher and Hales. The former follows the Hebrew, and the latter the Septuagint mainly. Archbishop Ussher's (died 1656) system is called the short chronology. It is that given on the margin of the Authorized Version, but is really of no authority, and is quite uncertain.

Ussher Hales B.C. B.C. Creation 4004 5411 Flood 2348 3155 Abram leaves Haran 1921 2078 Exodus 1491 1648 Destruction of the Temple 588 586

To show at a glance the different ideas of the date of the creation, it may be interesting to note the following: From Creation to 1894.

According to Ussher, 5,898; Hales, 7,305; Zunz (Hebrew reckoning), 5,882; Septuagint (Perowne), 7,305; Rabbinical, 5,654; Panodorus, 7,387; Anianus, 7,395; Constantinopolitan, 7,403; Eusebius, 7,093; Scaliger, 5,844; Dionysius (from whom we take our Christian era), 7,388; Maximus, 7,395; Syncellus and Theophanes, 7,395; Julius Africanus, 7,395; Jackson, 7,320.

Chrysoprasus
Golden leek, a precious stone of the colour of leek's juice, a greenish-golden colour (Rev.21:20).

Chub
The name of a people in alliance with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar. The word is found only in Ezek.30:5. They were probably a people of Northern Africa, or of the lands near Egypt in the south.

Chun
One of the cities of Hadarezer, king of Syria. David procured brass (i.e., bronze or copper) from it for the temple (1 Chr.18:8). It is called Berothai in 2 Sam.8:8; probably the same as Berothah in Ezek.47:16.

Church
Derived probably from the Greek kuriakon (i.e., "the Lord's house"), which was used by ancient authors for the place of worship.

In the New Testament it is the translation of the Greek word ecclesia, which is synonymous with the Hebrew kahal of the Old Testament, both words meaning simply an assembly, the character of which can only be known from the connection in which the word is found. There is no clear instance of its being used for a place of meeting or of worship, although in post-apostolic times it early received this meaning. Nor is this word ever used to denote the inhabitants of a country united in the same profession, as when we say the "Church of England," the "Church of Scotland," etc.

We find the word ecclesia used in the following senses in the New Testament: (1.) It is translated "assembly" in the ordinary classical sense (Acts 19:32, 39, 41).

(2.) It denotes the whole body of the redeemed, all those whom the Father has given to Christ, the invisible catholic church (Eph.5:23, 25, 27, 29; Heb.12:23).

(3.) A few Christians associated together in observing the ordinances of the gospel are an ecclesia (Rom.16:5; Col.4:15).

(4.) All the Christians in a particular city, whether they assembled together in one place or in several places for religious worship, were an ecclesia. Thus all the disciples in Antioch, forming several congregations, were one church (Acts 13:1); so also we read of the "church of God at Corinth" (1 Cor.1:2), "the church at Jerusalem" (Acts 8:1), "the church of Ephesus" (Rev.2:1), etc.

(5.) The whole body of professing Christians throughout the world (1 Cor.15:9; Gal.1:13; Matt.16:18) are the church of Christ.

The church visible "consists of all those throughout the world that profess the true religion, together with their children." It is called "visible" because its members are known and its assemblies are public. Here there is a mixture of "wheat and chaff," of saints and sinners. "God has commanded his people to organize themselves into distinct visible ecclesiastical communities, with constitutions, laws, and officers, badges, ordinances, and discipline, for the great purpose of giving visibility to his kingdom, of making known the gospel of that kingdom, and of gathering in all its elect subjects. Each one of these distinct organized communities which is faithful to the great King is an integral part of the visible church, and all together constitute the catholic or universal visible church." A credible profession of the true religion constitutes a person a member of this church. This is "the kingdom of heaven," whose character and progress are set forth in the parables recorded in Matt.13.

The children of all who thus profess the true religion are members of the visible church along with their parents. Children are included in every covenant God ever made with man. They go along with their parents (Gen.9:9-17; 12:1-3; 17:7; Ex.20:5; Deut.29:10-13). Peter, on the day of Pentecost, at the beginning of the New Testament dispensation, announces the same great principle. "The promise [just as to Abraham and his seed the promises were made] is unto you, and to your children" (Acts 2:38, 39). The children of believing parents are "holy", i.e., are "saints", a title which designates the members of the Christian church (1 Cor.7:14). (See [116]BAPTISM.)

The church invisible "consists of the whole number of the elect that have been, are, or shall be gathered into one under Christ, the head thereof." This is a pure society, the church in which Christ dwells. It is the body of Christ. it is called "invisible" because the greater part of those who constitute it are already in heaven or are yet unborn, and also because its members still on earth cannot certainly be distinguished. The qualifications of membership in it are internal and are hidden. It is unseen except by Him who "searches the heart." "The Lord knoweth them that are his" (2 Tim.2:19).

The church to which the attributes, prerogatives, and promises appertaining to Christ's kingdom belong, is a spiritual body consisting of all true believers, i.e., the church invisible.

(1.) Its unity. God has ever had only one church on earth. We sometimes speak of the Old Testament Church and of the New Testament church, but they are one and the same. The Old Testament church was not to be changed but enlarged (Isa.49:13-23; 60:1-14). When the Jews are at length restored, they will not enter a new church, but will be grafted again into "their own olive tree" (Rom.11:18-24; comp. Eph.2:11-22). The apostles did not set up a new organization. Under their ministry disciples were "added" to the "church" already existing (Acts 2:47).

(2.) Its universality. It is the "catholic" church; not confined to any particular country or outward organization, but comprehending all believers throughout the whole world.

(3.) Its perpetuity. It will continue through all ages to the end of the world. It can never be destroyed. It is an "everlasting kindgdom."

Churl
In Isa.32:5 (R.V. marg., "crafty"), means a deceiver. In 1 Sam.25:3, the word churlish denotes a man that is coarse and ill-natured, or, as the word literally means, "hard." The same Greek word as used by the LXX. here is found in Matt.25:24, and there is rendered "hard."

Chushan-rishathaim
Cush of double wickedness, or governor of two presidencies, the king of Mesopotamia who oppressed Israel in the generation immediately following Joshua (Judg.3:8). We learn from the Tell-el-Amarna tablets that Palestine had been invaded by the forces of Aram-naharaim (A.V., "Mesopotamia") more than once, long before the Exodus, and that at the time they were written the king of Aram-naharaim was still intriguing in Canaan. It is mentioned among the countries which took part in the attack upon Egypt in the reign of Rameses III. (of the Twentieth Dynasty), but as its king is not one of the princes stated to have been conquered by the Pharaoh, it would seem that he did not actually enter Egypt. As the reign of Rameses III. corresponds with the Israelitish occupation of Canaan, it is probable that the Egyptian monuments refer to the oppression of the Israelites by Chushan-rishathaim. Canaan was still regarded as a province of Egypt, so that, in attacking it Chushan-rishathaim would have been considered to be attacking Egypt.

Cilicia
A maritime province in the south-east of Asia Minor. Tarsus, the birth-place of Paul, was one of its chief towns, and the seat of a celebrated school of philosophy. Its luxurious climate attracted to it many Greek residents after its incorporation with the Macedonian empire. It was formed into a Roman province, B.C.67. The Jews of Cilicia had a synagogue at Jerusalem (Acts 6:9). Paul visited it soon after his conversion (Gal.1:21; Acts 9:30), and again, on his second missionary journey (15:41), "he went through Syria and Cilicia, confirming the churches." It was famous for its goat's-hair cloth, called cilicium. Paul learned in his youth the trade of making tents of this cloth.

Cinnamon
Heb. kinamon, the Cinnamomum zeylanicum of botanists, a tree of the Laurel family, which grows only in India on the Malabar coast, in Ceylon, and China. There is no trace of it in Egypt, and it was unknown in Syria. The inner rind when dried and rolled into cylinders forms the cinnamon of commerce. The fruit and coarser pieces of bark when boiled yield a fragrant oil. It was one of the principal ingredients in the holy anointing oil (Ex.30:23). It is mentioned elsewhere only in Prov.7:17; Cant.4:14; Rev.18:13. The mention of it indicates a very early and extensive commerce carried on between Palestine and the East.

Cinnereth
A harp, one of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali (Josh.19:35; comp. Deut.3:17). It also denotes, apparently, a district which may have taken its name from the adjacent city or lake of Gennesaret, anciently called "the sea of Chinnereth" (q.v.), and was probably that enclosed district north of Tiberias afterwards called "the plain of Gennesaret." Called Chinneroth (R.V., Chinnereth) Josh.11:2. The phrase "all Cinneroth, with all the land of Naphtali" in 1 Kings 15:20 is parallel to "the store-houses of the cities of Naphtali" (R.V. marg.) in 2 Chr.16:4.

Circuit
The apparent diurnal revolution of the sun round the earth (Ps.19:6), and the changes of the wind (Eccl.1:6). In Job 22:14, "in the circuit of heaven" (R.V. marg., "on the vault of heaven") means the "arch of heaven," which seems to be bent over our heads.

Circumcision
Cutting around. This rite, practised before, as some think, by divers races, was appointed by God to be the special badge of his chosen people, an abiding sign of their consecration to him. It was established as a national ordinance (Gen.17:10, 11). In compliance with the divine command, Abraham, though ninety-nine years of age, was circumcised on the same day with Ishmael, who was thirteen years old (17:24-27). Slaves, whether home-born or purchased, were circumcised (17:12, 13); and all foreigners must have their males circumcised before they could enjoy the privileges of Jewish citizenship (Ex.12:48). During the journey through the wilderness, the practice of circumcision fell into disuse, but was resumed by the command of Joshua before they entered the Promised Land (Josh.5:2-9). It was observed always afterwards among the tribes of israel, although it is not expressly mentioned from the time of the settlement in Canaan till the time of Christ, about 1,450 years. The Jews prided themselves in the possession of this covenant distinction (Judg.14:3; 15:18; 1 Sam.14:6; 17:26; 2 Sam.1:20; Ezek.31:18).

As a rite of the church it ceased when the New Testament times began (Gal.6:15; Col.3:11). Some Jewish Christians sought to impose it, however, on the Gentile converts; but this the apostles resolutely resisted (Acts 15:1; Gal.6:12). Our Lord was circumcised, for it "became him to fulfil all
righteousness," as of the seed of Abraham, according to the flesh; and Paul "took and circumcised" Timothy (Acts 16:3), to avoid giving offence to the Jews. It would render Timothy's labours more acceptable to the Jews. But Paul would by no means consent to the demand that Titus should be circumcised (Gal.2:3-5). The great point for which he contended was the free admission of uncircumcised Gentiles into the church. He contended successfully in behalf of Titus, even in Jerusalem.

In the Old Testament a spiritual idea is attached to circumcision. It was the symbol of purity (Isa.52:1). We read of uncircumcised lips (Ex.6:12, 30), ears (Jer.6:10), hearts (Lev.26:41). The fruit of a tree that is unclean is spoken of as uncircumcised (Lev.19:23).

It was a sign and seal of the covenant of grace as well as of the national covenant between God and the Hebrews. (1.) It sealed the promises made to Abraham, which related to the commonwealth of Israel, national promises. (2.) But the promises made to Abraham included the promise of redemption (Gal.3:14), a promise which has come upon us. The covenant with Abraham was a dispensation or a specific form of the covenant of grace, and circumcision was a sign and seal of that covenant. It had a spiritual meaning. It signified purification of the heart, inward circumcision effected by the Spirit (Deut.10:16; 30:6; Ezek.44:7; Acts 7:51; Rom.2:28; Col.2:11). Circumcision as a symbol shadowing forth sanctification by the Holy Spirit has now given way to the symbol of baptism (q.v.). But the truth embodied in both ordinances is ever the same, the removal of sin, the sanctifying effects of grace in the heart.

Under the Jewish dispensation, church and state were identical. No one could be a member of the one without also being a member of the other. Circumcision was a sign and seal of membership in both. Every circumcised person bore thereby evidence that he was one of the chosen people, a member of the church of God as it then existed, and consequently also a member of the Jewish commonwealth.

Cistern
The rendering of a Hebrew word bor, which means a receptacle for water conveyed to it; distinguished from beer, which denotes a place where water rises on the spot (Jer.2:13; Prov.5:15; Isa.36:16), a fountain. Cisterns are frequently mentioned in Scripture. The scarcity of springs in Palestine made it necessary to collect rain-water in reservoirs and cisterns (Num.21:22). (See [117]WELL.)

Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons (Jer.38:6; Lam.3:53; Ps.40:2; 69:15). The "pit" into which Joseph was cast (Gen.37:24) was a beer or dry well. There are numerous remains of ancient cisterns in all parts of Palestine.

Citizenship
The rights and privileges of a citizen in distinction from a foreigner (Luke 15:15; 19:14; Acts 21:39). Under the Mosaic law non-Israelites, with the exception of the Moabites and the Ammonites and others mentioned in Deut.23:1-3, were admitted to the general privileges of citizenship among the Jews (Ex.12:19; Lev.24:22; Num.15:15; 35:15; Deut.10:18; 14:29; 16:10, 14).

The right of citizenship under the Roman government was granted by the emperor to individuals, and sometimes to provinces, as a favour or as a recompense for services rendered to the state, or for a sum of money (Acts 22:28). This "freedom" secured privileges equal to those enjoyed by natives of Rome. Among the most notable of these was the provision that a man could not be bound or imprisoned without a formal trial (Acts 22:25, 26), or scourged (16:37). All Roman citizens had the right of appeal to Caesar (25:11).

City
The earliest mention of city-building is that of Enoch, which was built by Cain (Gen.4:17). After the confusion of tongues, the descendants of Nimrod founded several cities (10:10-12). Next, we have a record of the cities of the Canaanites, Sidon, Gaza, Sodom, etc. (10:12, 19; 11:3, 9; 36:31-39). The earliest description of a city is that of Sodom (19:1-22). Damascus is said to be the oldest existing city in the world. Before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt (Num.13:22). The Israelites in Egypt were employed in building the "treasure cities" of Pithom and Raamses (Ex.1:11); but it does not seem that they had any cities of their own in Goshen (Gen.46:34; 47:1-11). In the kingdom of Og in Bashan there were sixty "great cities with walls," and twenty-three cities in Gilead partly rebuilt by the tribes on the east of Jordan (Num.21:21, 32, 33, 35; 32:1-3, 34-42; Deut.3:4, 5, 14; 1 Kings 4:13). On the west of Jordan were thirty-one "royal cities" (Josh.12), besides many others spoken of in the history of Israel.

A fenced city was a city surrounded by fortifications and high walls, with watch-towers upon them (2 Chr.11:11; Deut.3:5). There was also within the city generally a tower to which the citizens might flee when danger threatened them (Judg.9:46-52).

A city with suburbs was a city surrounded with open pasture-grounds, such as the forty-eight cities which were given to the Levites (Num.35:2-7). There were six cities of refuge, three on each side of Jordan, namely, Kadesh, Shechem, Hebron, on the west of Jordan; and on the east, Bezer, Ramoth-gilead, and Golan. The cities on each side of the river were nearly opposite each other. The regulations concerning these cities are given in Num.35:9-34; Deut.19:1-13; Ex.21:12-14.

When David reduced the fortress of the Jebusites which stood on Mount Zion, he built on the site of it a palace and a city, which he called by his own name (1 Chr.11:5), the city of David. Bethlehem is also so called as being David's native town (Luke 2:4).

Jerusalem is called the Holy City, the holiness of the temple being regarded as extending in some measure over the whole city (Neh.11:1).

Pithom and Raamses, built by the Israelites as "treasure cities," were not places where royal treasures were kept, but were fortified towns where merchants might store their goods and transact their business in safety, or cities in which munitions of war were stored. (See [118]PITHOM.)

Clauda
A small island off the southwest coast of Crete, passed by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:16). It is about 7 miles long and 3 broad. It is now called Gozzo (R.V., "Cauda").

Claudia
A female Christian mentioned in 2 Tim.4:21. It is a conjecture having some probability that she was a British maiden, the daughter of king Cogidunus, who was an ally of Rome, and assumed the name of the emperor, his patron, Tiberius Claudius, and that she was the wife of Pudens.

Claudius
Lame. (1.) The fourth Roman emperor. He succeeded Caligula (A.D.41). Though in general he treated the Jews, especially those in Asia and Egypt, with great indulgence, yet about the middle of his reign (A.D.49) he banished them all from Rome (Acts 18:2). In this edict the Christians were included, as being, as was supposed, a sect of Jews. The Jews, however soon again returned to Rome.

During the reign of this emperor, several persecutions of the Christians by the Jews took place in the dominions of Herod Agrippa, in one of which the apostle James was "killed" (12:2). He died A.D.54.

(2.) Claudius Lysias, a Greek who, having obtained by purchase the privilege of Roman citizenship, took the name of Claudius (Acts 21:31-40; 22:28; 23:26).

Clay
This word is used of sediment found in pits or in streets (Isa.57:20; Jer.38:60), of dust mixed with spittle (John 9:6), and of potter's clay (Isa.41:25; Nah.3:14; Jer.18:1-6; Rom.9:21). Clay was used for sealing (Job 38:14; Jer.32:14). Our Lord's tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt.27:66). The practice of sealing doors with clay is still common in the East. Clay was also in primitive times used for mortar (Gen.11:3). The "clay ground" in which the large vessels of the temple were cast (1 Kings 7:46; 2 Chr.4:17) was a compact loam fitted for the purpose. The expression literally rendered is, "in the thickness of the ground,", meaning, "in stiff ground" or in clay.

Clean
The various forms of uncleanness according to the Mosaic law are enumerated in Lev.11-15; Num.19. The division of animals into clean and unclean was probably founded on the practice of sacrifice. It existed before the Flood (Gen.7:2). The regulations regarding such animals are recorded in Lev.11 and Deut.14:1-21.

The Hebrews were prohibited from using as food certain animal substances, such as (1) blood; (2) the fat covering the intestines, termed the caul; (3) the fat on the intestines, called the mesentery; (4) the fat of the kidneys; and (5) the fat tail of certain sheep (Ex.29:13, 22; Lev.3:4-9; 9:19; 17:10; 19:26).

The chief design of these regulations seems to have been to establish a system of regimen which would distinguish the Jews from all other nations. Regarding the design and the abolition of these regulations the reader will find all the details in Lev.20:24-26; Acts 10:9-16; 11:1-10; Heb.9:9-14.

Clement
Mild, a Christian of Philippi, Paul's "fellow-labourer," whose name he mentions as "in the book of life" (Phil.4:3). It was an opinion of ancient writers that he was the Clement of Rome whose name is well known in church history, and that he was the author of an Epistle to the Corinthians, the only known manuscript of which is appended to the Alexandrian Codex, now in the British Museum. It is of some historical interest, and has given rise to much discussion among critics. It makes distinct reference to Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians.

Cleopas
(abbreviation of Cleopatros), one of the two disciples with whom Jesus conversed on the way to Emmaus on the day of the resurrection (Luke 24:18). We know nothing definitely regarding him. It is not certain that he was the Clopas of John 19:25, or the Alphaeus of Matt.10:3, although he may have been so.

Cleophas
(in the spelling of this word h is inserted by mistake from Latin MSS.), rather Cleopas, which is the Greek form of the word, while Clopas is the Aramaic form. In John 19:25 the Authorized Version reads, "Mary, the wife of Clopas." The word "wife" is conjecturally inserted here. If "wife" is rightly inserted, then Mary was the mother of James the Less, and Clopas is the same as Alphaeus (Matt.10:3; 27:56).

Cloak
An upper garment, "an exterior tunic, wide and long, reaching to the ankles, but without sleeves" (Isa.59:17). The word so rendered is elsewhere rendered "robe" or "mantle." It was worn by the high priest under the ephod (Ex.28:31), by kings and others of rank (1 Sam.15:27; Job 1:20; 2:12), and by women (2 Sam.13:18).

The word translated "cloke", i.e., outer garment, in Matt.5:40 is in its plural form used of garments in general (Matt.17:2; 26:65). The cloak mentioned here and in Luke 6:29 was the Greek himation, Latin pallium, and consisted of a large square piece of wollen cloth fastened round the shoulders, like the abba of the Arabs. This could be taken by a creditor (Ex.22:26, 27), but the coat or tunic (Gr. chiton) mentioned in Matt.5:40 could not.

The cloak which Paul "left at Troas" (2 Tim.4:13) was the Roman paenula, a thick upper garment used chiefly in travelling as a protection from the weather. Some, however, have supposed that what Paul meant was a travelling-bag. In the Syriac version the word used means a bookcase. (See [119]Dress.)

Closet
As used in the New Testament, signifies properly a storehouse (Luke 12: 24), and hence a place of privacy and retirement (Matt.6:6; Luke 12:3).

Cloud
The Hebrew so rendered means "a covering," because clouds cover the sky. The word is used as a symbol of the Divine presence, as indicating the splendour of that glory which it conceals (Ex.16:10; 33:9; Num.11:25; 12:5; Job 22:14; Ps.18:11). A "cloud without rain" is a proverbial saying, denoting a man who does not keep his promise (Prov.16:15; Isa.18:4; 25:5; Jude 1:12). A cloud is the figure of that which is transitory (Job 30:15; Hos.6:4). A bright cloud is the symbolical seat of the Divine presence (Ex.29:42, 43; 1 Kings 8:10; 2 Chr.5:14; Ezek.43:4), and was called the Shechinah (q.v.). Jehovah came down upon Sinai in a cloud (Ex.19:9); and the cloud filled the court around the tabernacle in the wilderness so that Moses could not enter it (Ex.40:34, 35). At the dedication of the temple also the cloud "filled the house of the Lord" (1 Kings 8:10). Thus in like manner when Christ comes the second time he is described as coming "in the clouds" (Matt.17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9, 11). False teachers are likened unto clouds carried about with a tempest (2 Pet.2:17). The infirmities of old age, which come one after another, are compared by Solomon to "clouds returning after the rain" (Eccl.12:2). The blotting out of sins is like the sudden disappearance of threatening clouds from the sky (Isa.44:22).

Cloud, the pillar of, was the glory-cloud which indicated God's presence leading the ransomed people through the wilderness (Ex.13:22; 33:9, 10). This pillar preceded the people as they marched, resting on the ark (Ex.13:21; 40:36). By night it became a pillar of fire (Num.9:17-23).

Cnidus
A town and harbour on the extreme south-west of the peninsula of Doris in Asia Minor. Paul sailed past it on his voyage to Rome after leaving Myra (Acts 27:7).

Coal
It is by no means certain that the Hebrews were acquainted with mineral coal, although it is found in Syria. Their common fuel was dried dung of animals and wood charcoal. Two different words are found in Hebrew to denote coal, both occurring in Prov.26:21, "As coal [Heb. peham; i.e., "black coal"] is to burning coal [Heb. gehalim]." The latter of these words is used in Job 41:21; Prov.6:28; Isa.44:19. The words "live coal" in Isa.6:6 are more correctly "glowing stone." In Lam.4:8 the expression "blacker than a coal" is literally rendered in the margin of the Revised Version "darker than blackness." "Coals of fire" (2 Sam.22:9, 13; Ps.18:8, 12, 13, etc.) is an expression used metaphorically for lightnings proceeding from God. A false tongue is compared to "coals of juniper" (Ps.120:4; James 3:6). "Heaping coals of fire on the head" symbolizes overcoming evil with good. The words of Paul (Rom.12:20) are equivalent to saying, "By charity and kindness thou shalt soften down his enmity as surely as heaping coals on the fire fuses the metal in the crucible."

Coat
The tunic worn like the shirt next the skin (Lev.16:4; Cant.5:3; 2 Sam.15:32; Ex.28:4; 29:5). The "coats of skins" prepared by God for Adam and Eve were probably nothing more than aprons (Gen.3:21). This tunic was sometimes woven entire without a seam (John 19:23); it was also sometimes of "many colours" (Gen.37:3; R.V. marg., "a long garment with sleeves"). The "fisher's coat" of John 21:7 was obviously an outer garment or cloak, as was also the "coat" made by Hannah for Samuel (1 Sam.2:19). (See [120]DRESS.)

Coat of mail
The rendering of a Hebrew word meaning "glittering" (1 Sam.17:5, 38). The same word in the plural form is translated "habergeons" in 2 Chr.26:14 and Neh.4:16. The "harness" (1 Kings 22:34), "breastplate" (Isa.59:17), and "brigandine" (Jer.46:4), were probably also corselets or coats of mail. (See [121]ARMOUR.)

Cockatrice
The mediaeval name (a corruption of "crocodile") of a fabulous serpent supposed to be produced from a cock's egg. It is generally supposed to denote the cerastes, or "horned viper," a very poisonous serpent about a foot long. Others think it to be the yellow viper (Daboia xanthina), one of the most dangerous vipers, from its size and its nocturnal habits (Isa.11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer.8:17; in all which the Revised Version renders the Hebrew tziph'oni by "basilisk"). In Prov.23:32 the Hebrew tzeph'a is rendered both in the Authorized Version and the Revised Version by "adder;" margin of Revised Version "basilisk," and of Authorized Version "cockatrice."

Cock-crowing
In our Lord's time the Jews had adopted the Greek and Roman division of the night into four watches, each consisting of three hours, the first beginning at six o'clock in the evening (Luke 12:38; Matt.14:25; Mark 6:48). But the ancient division, known as the first and second cock-crowing, was still retained. The cock usually crows several times soon after midnight (this is the first crowing), and again at the dawn of day (and this is the second crowing). Mark mentions (14:30) the two
cock-crowings. Matthew (26:34) alludes to that only which was emphatically the cock-crowing, viz, the second.

Cockle
Occurs only in Job 31:40 (marg., "noisome weeds"), where it is the rendering of a Hebrew word (b'oshah) which means "offensive," "having a bad smell," referring to some weed perhaps which has an unpleasant odour. Or it may be regarded as simply any noisome weed, such as the "tares" or darnel of Matt.13:30. In Isa.5:2, 4 the plural form is rendered "wild grapes."

Coele-Syria
Hollow Syria, the name (not found in Scripture) given by the Greeks to the extensive valley, about 100 miles long, between the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon range of mountains.

Coffer
The receptacle or small box placed beside the ark by the Philistines, in which they deposited the golden mice and the emerods as their trespass-offering (1 Sam.6:8, 11, 15).

Coffin
Used in Gen.50:26 with reference to the burial of Joseph. Here, it means a mummy-chest. The same Hebrew word is rendered "chest" in 2 Kings 12:9, 10.

Cogitations
(or "thoughts," as the Chaldee word in Dan.7:28 literally means), earnest meditation.

Coin
Before the Exile the Jews had no regularly stamped money. They made use of uncoined shekels or talents of silver, which they weighed out (Gen.23:16; Ex.38:24; 2 Sam.18:12). Probably the silver ingots used in the time of Abraham may have been of a fixed weight, which was in some way indicated on them. The "pieces of silver" paid by Abimelech to Abraham (Gen.20:16), and those also for which Joseph was sold (37:28), were proably in the form of rings. The shekel was the common standard of weight and value among the Hebrews down to the time of the Captivity. Only once is a shekel of gold mentioned (1 Chr.21:25). The "six thousand of gold" mentioned in the transaction between Naaman and Gehazi (2 Kings 5:5) were probably so many shekels of gold. The "piece of money" mentioned in Job 42:11; Gen.33:19 (marg., "lambs") was the Hebrew kesitah, probably an uncoined piece of silver of a certain weight in the form of a sheep or lamb, or perhaps having on it such an impression. The same Hebrew word is used in Josh.24:32, which is rendered by Wickliffe "an hundred yonge scheep."

Collar
(Heb. peh), means in Job 30:18 the mouth or opening of the garment that closes round the neck in the same way as a tunic (Ex.39:23). The "collars" (Heb. netiphoth) among the spoils of the Midianites (Judg.8:26; R.V., "pendants") were ear-drops. The same Hebrew word is rendered "chains" in Isa.3:19.

Collection
The Christians in Palestine, from various causes, suffered from poverty. Paul awakened an interest in them among the Gentile churches, and made pecuniary collections in their behalf (Acts 24:17; Rom.15:25, 26; 1 Cor.16:1-3; 2 Cor.8:9; Gal.2:10).

College
Heb. mishneh (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chr.34:22), rendered in Revised Version "second quarter", the residence of the prophetess Huldah. The Authorized Version followed the Jewish commentators, who, following the Targum, gave the Hebrew word its post-Biblical sense, as if it meant a place of instruction. It properly means the "second," and may therefore denote the lower city (Acra), which was built after the portion of the city on Mount Zion, and was enclosed by a second wall.

Colony
The city of Philippi was a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), i.e., a military settlement of Roman soldiers and citizens, planted there to keep in subjection a newly-conquered district. A colony was Rome in miniature, under Roman municipal law, but governed by military officers (praetors and lictors), not by proconsuls. It had an independent internal government, the jus Italicum; i.e., the privileges of Italian citizens.

Colossae
Or Colosse, a city of Phrygia, on the Lycus, which is a tributary of the Maeander. It was about 12 miles above Laodicea, and near the great road from Ephesus to the Euphrates, and was consequently of some mercantile importance. It does not appear that Paul had visited this city when he wrote his letter to the church there (Col.1:2). He expresses in his letter to Philemon (ver.1:22) his hope to visit it on being delivered from his imprisonment. From Col.1:7; 4:12 it has been concluded that Epaphras was the founder of the Colossian church. This town afterwards fell into decay, and the modern town of Chonas or Chonum occupies a site near its ruins.

Colossians, Epistle to the
Was written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there (Acts 28:16, 30), probably in the spring of A.D.57, or, as some think, 62, and soon after he had written his Epistle to the Ephesians. Like some of his other epistles (e.g., those to Corinth), this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had somehow been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there (Col.1:4-8). Its object was to counteract false teaching. A large part of it is directed against certain speculatists who attempted to combine the doctrines of Oriental mysticism and asceticism with Christianity, thereby promising the disciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of spirits. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in Christ Jesus they had all things. He sets forth the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the "new moon" and "sabbath days" (2:16) shows also that there were here Judaizing teachers who sought to draw away the disciples from the simplicity of the gospel.

Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists of two parts, a doctrinal and a practical.

(1.) The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. His main theme is developed in chapter 2. He warns them against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fulness of the Godhead, and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more?

(2.) The practical part of the epistle (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man (3:5-14). Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. Tychicus was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the Ephesians and to Philemon, and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange this letter with that he had sent to the neighbouring church of Laodicea. He then closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation. There is a remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians (q.v.). The genuineness of this epistle has not been called in question.

Colour
The subject of colours holds an important place in the Scriptures.

White occurs as the translation of various Hebrew words. It is applied to milk (Gen.49:12), manna (Ex.16:31), snow (Isa.1:18), horses (Zech.1:8), raiment (Eccl.9:8). Another Hebrew word so rendered is applied to marble (Esther 1:6), and a cognate word to the lily (Cant.2:16). A different term, meaning "dazzling," is applied to the countenance (Cant.5:10).

This colour was an emblem of purity and innocence (Mark 16:5; John 20:12; Rev.19:8, 14), of joy (Eccl.9:8), and also of victory (Zech.6:3; Rev.6:2). The hangings of the tabernacle court (Ex.27:9; 38:9), the coats, mitres, bonnets, and breeches of the priests (Ex.39:27, 28), and the dress of the high priest on the day of Atonement (Lev.16:4, 32), were white.

Black, applied to the hair (Lev.13:31; Cant.5:11), the complexion (Cant.1:5), and to horses (Zech.6:2, 6). The word rendered "brown" in Gen.30:32 (R.V., "black") means properly "scorched", i.e., the colour produced by the influence of the sun's rays. "Black" in Job 30:30 means dirty, blackened by sorrow and disease. The word is applied to a mourner's robes (Jer.8:21; 14:2), to a clouded sky (1 Kings 18:45), to night (Micah 3:6; Jer.4:28), and to a brook rendered turbid by melted snow (Job 6:16). It is used as symbolical of evil in Zech.6:2, 6 and Rev.6:5. It was the emblem of mourning, affliction, calamity (Jer.14:2; Lam.4:8; 5:10).

Red, applied to blood (2 Kings 3;22), a heifer (Num.19:2), pottage of lentils (Gen.25:30), a horse (Zech.1:8), wine (Prov.23:31), the complexion (Gen.25:25; Cant.5:10). This colour is symbolical of bloodshed (Zech.6:2; Rev.6:4; 12:3).

Purple, a colour obtained from the secretion of a species of shell-fish (the Murex trunculus) which was found in the Mediterranean, and particularly on the coasts of Phoenicia and Asia Minor. The colouring matter in each separate shell-fish amounted to only a single drop, and hence the great value of this dye. Robes of this colour were worn by kings (Judg.8:26) and high officers (Esther 8:15). They were also worn by the wealthy and luxurious (Jer.10:9; Ezek.27:7; Luke 16:19; Rev.17:4). With this colour was associated the idea of royalty and majesty (Judg.8:26; Cant.3:10; 7:5; Dan.5:7, 16, 29).

Blue. This colour was also procured from a species of shell-fish, the chelzon of the Hebrews, and the Helix ianthina of modern naturalists. The tint was emblematic of the sky, the deep dark hue of the Eastern sky. This colour was used in the same way as purple. The ribbon and fringe of the Hebrew dress were of this colour (Num.15:38). The loops of the curtains (Ex.26:4), the lace of the high priest's breastplate, the robe of the ephod, and the lace on his mitre, were blue (Ex.28:28, 31, 37).

Scarlet, or Crimson. In Isa.1:18 a Hebrew word is used which denotes the worm or grub whence this dye was procured. In Gen.38:28, 30, the word so rendered means "to shine," and expresses the brilliancy of the colour. The small parasitic insects from which this dye was obtained somewhat resembled the cochineal which is found in Eastern countries. It is called by naturalists Coccus ilics. The dye was procured from the female grub alone. The only natural object to which this colour is applied in Scripture is the lips, which are likened to a scarlet thread (Cant.4:3). Scarlet robes were worn by the rich and luxurious (2 Sam.1:24; Prov.31:21; Jer.4:30. Rev.17:4). It was also the hue of the warrior's dress (Nah.2:3; Isa.9:5). The Phoenicians excelled in the art of dyeing this colour (2 Chr.2:7).

These four colours -- white, purple, blue, and scarlet -- were used in the textures of the tabernacle curtains (Ex.26:1, 31, 36), and also in the high priest's ephod, girdle, and breastplate (Ex.28:5, 6, 8, 15). Scarlet thread is mentioned in connection with the rites of cleansing the leper (Lev.14:4, 6, 51) and of burning the red heifer (Num.19:6). It was a crimson thread that Rahab was to bind on her window as a sign that she was to be saved alive (Josh.2:18; 6:25) when the city of Jericho was taken.

Vermilion, the red sulphuret of mercury, or cinnabar; a colour used for drawing the figures of idols on the walls of temples (Ezek.23:14), or for decorating the walls and beams of houses (Jer.22:14).

Comforter
The designation of the Holy Ghost (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7; R.V. marg., "or Advocate, or Helper; Gr. paracletos"). The same Greek word thus rendered is translated "Advocate" in 1 John 2:1 as applicable to Christ. It means properly "one who is summoned to the side of another" to help him in a court of justice by defending him, "one who is summoned to plead a cause." "Advocate" is the proper rendering of the word in every case where it occurs.

It is worthy of notice that although Paul nowhere uses the word paracletos, he yet presents the idea it embodies when he speaks of the "intercession" both of Christ and the Spirit (Rom.8:27, 34).

Coming of Christ
(1) with reference to his first advent "in the fulness of the time" (1 John 5:20; 2 John 1:7), or (2) with reference to his coming again the second time at the last day (Acts 1:11; 3:20, 21; 1 Thess.4:15; 2 Tim.4:1; Heb.9:28).

The expression is used metaphorically of the introduction of the gospel into any place (John 15:22; Eph.2:17), the visible establishment of his kingdom in the world (Matt.16:28), the conferring on his people of the peculiar tokens of his love (John 14:18, 23, 28), and his executing judgment on the wicked (2 Thess.2:8).

Commandments, the Ten
(Ex.34:28; Deut.10:4, marg. "ten words") i.e., the Decalogue (q.v.), is a summary of the immutable moral law. These commandments were first given in their written form to the people of Israel when they were encamped at Sinai, about fifty days after they came out of Egypt (Ex.19:10-25). They were written by the finger of God on two tables of stone. The first tables were broken by Moses when he brought them down from the mount (32:19), being thrown by him on the ground. At the command of God he took up into the mount two other tables, and God wrote on them "the words that were on the first tables" (34:1). These tables were afterwards placed in the ark of the covenant (Deut.10:5; 1 Kings 8:9). Their subsequent history is unknown. They are as a whole called "the covenant" (Deut.4:13), and "the tables of the covenant" (9:9, 11; Heb.9:4), and "the testimony."

They are obviously "ten" in number, but their division is not fixed, hence different methods of numbering them have been adopted. The Jews make the "Preface" one of the commandments, and then combine the first and second. The Roman Catholics and Lutherans combine the first and second and divide the tenth into two. The Jews and Josephus divide them equally. The Lutherans and Roman Catholics refer three commandments to the first table and seven to the second. The Greek and Reformed Churches refer four to the first and six to the second table. The Samaritans add to the second that Gerizim is the mount of worship. (See [122]LAW.)

Communion
Fellowship with God (Gen.18:17-33; Ex.33:9-11; Num.12:7, 8), between Christ and his people (John 14:23), by the Spirit (2 Cor.13:14; Phil.2:1), of believers with one another (Eph.4:1-6). The Lord's Supper is so called (1 Cor.10:16, 17), because in it there is fellowship between Christ and his disciples, and of the disciples with one another.

Conaniah
Whom Jehovah hath set, a Levite placed over the tithes brought into the temple (2 Chr.35:9).

Concision
(Gr. katatome; i.e., "mutilation"), a term used by Paul contemptuously of those who were zealots for circumcision (Phil.3:2). Instead of the warning, "Beware of the circumcision" (peritome) i.e., of the party who pressed on Gentile converts the necessity of still observing that ordinance, he says, "Beware of the concision;" as much as to say, "This circumcision which they vaunt of is in Christ only as the gashings and mutilations of idolatrous heathen."

Concubine
In the Bible denotes a female conjugally united to a man, but in a relation inferior to that of a wife. Among the early Jews, from various causes, the difference between a wife and a concubine was less marked than it would be amongst us. The concubine was a wife of secondary rank. There are various laws recorded providing for their protection (Ex.21:7; Deut.21:10-14), and setting limits to the relation they sustained to the household to which they belonged (Gen.21:14; 25:6). They had no authority in the family, nor could they share in the household government.

The immediate cause of concubinage might be gathered from the conjugal histories of Abraham and Jacob (Gen.16;30). But in process of time the custom of concubinage degenerated, and laws were made to restrain and regulate it (Ex.21:7-9).

Christianity has restored the sacred institution of marriage to its original character, and concubinage is ranked with the sins of fornication and adultery (Matt.19:5-9; 1 Cor.7:2).

Concupiscence
Desire, Rom.7:8 (R.V., "coveting"); Col.3:5 (R.V., "desire"). The "lust of concupiscence" (1 Thess.4:5; R.V., "passion of lust") denotes evil desire, indwelling sin.

Conduit
A water-course or channel (Job 38:25). The "conduit of the upper pool" (Isa.7:3) was formed by Hezekiah for the purpose of conveying the waters from the upper pool in the valley of Gihon to the west side of the city of David (2 Kings 18:17; 20:20; 2 Chr.32:30). In carrying out this work he stopped "the waters of the fountains which were without the city" i.e., "the upper water-course of Gihon", and conveyed it down from the west through a canal into the city, so that in case of a siege the inhabitants of the city might have a supply of water, which would thus be withdrawn from the enemy. (See [123]SILOAM.)

There are also the remains of a conduit which conducted water from the so-called "Pools of Solomon," beyond Bethlehem, into the city. Water is still conveyed into the city from the fountains which supplied these pools by a channel which crosses the valley of Hinnom.

Coney
(Heb. shaphan; i.e., "the hider"), an animal which inhabits the mountain gorges and the rocky districts of Arabia Petraea and the Holy Land. "The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks" (Prov.30:26; Ps.104:18). They are gregarious, and "exceeding wise" (Prov.30:24), and are described as chewing the cud (Lev.11:5; Deut.14:7).

The animal intended by this name is known among naturalists as the Hyrax Syriacus. It is neither a ruminant nor a rodent, but is regarded as akin to the rhinoceros. When it is said to "chew the cud," the Hebrew word so used does not necessarily imply the possession of a ruminant stomach. "The lawgiver speaks according to appearances; and no one can watch the constant motion of the little creature's jaws, as it sits continually working its teeth, without recognizing the naturalness of the expression" (Tristram, Natural History of the Bible). It is about the size and color of a rabbit, though clumsier in structure, and without a tail. Its feet are not formed for digging, and therefore it has its home not in burrows but in the clefts of the rocks. "Coney" is an obsolete English word for "rabbit."

Confection
(Ex.30:35, "ointment" in ver.25; R.V., "perfume"). The Hebrew word so rendered is derived from a root meaning to compound oil and perfume.

Confectionaries
Only in 1 Sam.8:13, those who make confections, i.e., perfumers, who compound species and perfumes.

Confession
(1) An open profession of faith (Luke 12:8). (2.) An acknowledment of sins to God (Lev.16:21; Ezra 9:5-15; Dan.9:3-12), and to a neighbour whom we have wronged (James 5:16; Matt.18:15).

Congregation
(Heb. kahal), the Hebrew people collectively as a holy community (Num.15:15). Every circumcised Hebrew from twenty years old and upward was a member of the congregation. Strangers resident in the land, if circumcised, were, with certain exceptions (Ex.12:19; Num.9:14; Deut.23:1-3), admitted to the privileges of citizenship, and spoken of as members of the congregation (Ex.12:19; Num.9:14; 15:15). The congregation were summonded together by the sound of two silver trumpets, and they met at the door of the tabernacle (Num.10:3). These assemblies were convened for the purpose of engaging in solemn religious services (Ex.12:27; Num.25:6; Joel 2:15), or of receiving new commandments (Ex.19:7, 8). The elders, who were summonded by the sound of one trumpet (Num.10:4), represented on various occasions the whole congregation (Ex.3:16; 12:21; 17:5; 24:1).

After the conquest of Canaan, the people were assembled only on occasions of the highest national importance (Judg.20; 2 Chr.30:5; 34:29; 1 Sam.10:17; 2 Sam.5:1-5; 1 Kings 12:20; 2 Kings 11:19; 21:24; 23:30). In subsequent times the congregation was represented by the Sanhedrim; and the name synagogue, applied in the Septuagint version exclusively to the congregation, came to be used to denote the places of worship established by the Jews. (See [124]CHURCH.)

In Acts 13:43, where alone it occurs in the New Testament, it is the same word as that rendered "synagogue" (q.v.) in ver.42, and is so rendered in ver.43 in R.V.

Congregation, mount of the
(Isa.14:13), has been supposed to refer to the place where God promised to meet with his people (Ex.25:22; 29:42, 43) i.e., the mount of the Divine presence, Mount Zion. But here the king of Babylon must be taken as expressing himself according to his own heathen notions, and not according to those of the Jews. The "mount of the congregation" will therefore in this case mean the northern mountain, supposed by the Babylonians to be the meeting-place of their gods. In the Babylonian inscriptions mention is made of a mountain which is described as "the mighty mountain of Bel, whose head rivals heaven, whose root is the holy deep." This mountain was regarded in their mythology as the place where the gods had their seat.

Conscience
That faculty of the mind, or inborn sense of right and wrong, by which we judge of the moral character of human conduct. It is common to all men. Like all our other faculties, it has been perverted by the Fall (John 16:2; Acts 26:9; Rom.2:15). It is spoken of as "defiled" (Titus 1:15), and "seared" (1 Tim.4:2). A "conscience void of offence" is to be sought and cultivated (Acts 24:16; Rom.9:1; 2 Cor.1:12; 1 Tim.1:5, 19; 1 Pet.3:21).

Consecration
The devoting or setting apart of anything to the worship or service of God. The race of Abraham and the tribe of Levi were thus consecrated (Ex.13:2, 12, 15; Num.3:12). The Hebrews devoted their fields and cattle, and sometimes the spoils of war, to the Lord (Lev.27:28, 29). According to the Mosaic law the first-born both of man and beast were consecrated to God.

In the New Testament, Christians are regarded as consecrated to the Lord (1 Pet.2:9).

Consolation of Israel
A name for the Messiah in common use among the Jews, probably suggested by Isa.12:1; 49:13. The Greek word thus rendered (Luke 2:25, paraklesis) is kindred to that translated "Comforter" in John 14:16, etc., parakletos.

Constellation
A cluster of stars, or stars which appear to be near each other in the heavens, and which astronomers have reduced to certain figures (as the "Great Bear," the "Bull," etc.) for the sake of classification and of memory. In Isa.13:10, where this word only occurs, it is the rendering of the Hebrew kesil, i.e., "fool." This was the Hebrew name of the constellation Orion (Job 9:9; 38:31), a constellation which represented Nimrod, the symbol of folly and impiety. The word some interpret by "the giant" in this place, "some heaven-daring rebel who was chained to the sky for his impiety."

Contentment
A state of mind in which one's desires are confined to his lot whatever it may be (1 Tim.6:6; 2 Cor.9:8). It is opposed to envy (James 3:16), avarice (Heb.13:5), ambition (Prov.13:10), anxiety (Matt.6:25, 34), and repining (1 Cor.10:10). It arises from the inward disposition, and is the offspring of humility, and of an intelligent consideration of the rectitude and benignity of divine providence (Ps.96:1, 2; 145), the greatness of the divine promises (2 Pet.1:4), and our own unworthiness (Gen.32:10); as well as from the view the gospel opens up to us of rest and peace hereafter (Rom.5:2).

Conversation
Generally the goings out and in of social intercourse (Eph.2:3; 4:22; R.V., "manner of life"); one's deportment or course of life. This word is never used in Scripture in the sense of verbal communication from one to another (Ps.50:23; Heb.13:5). In Phil.1:27 and 3:20, a different Greek word is used. It there means one's relations to a community as a citizen, i.e., citizenship.

Conversion
The turning of a sinner to God (Acts 15:3). In a general sense the heathen are said to be "converted" when they abandon heathenism and embrace the Christian faith; and in a more special sense men are converted when, by the influence of divine grace in their souls, their whole life is changed, old things pass away, and all things become new (Acts 26:18). Thus we speak of the conversion of the Philippian jailer (16:19-34), of Paul (9:1-22), of the Ethiopian treasurer (8:26-40), of Cornelius (10), of Lydia (16:13-15), and others. (See [125]REGENERATION.)

Convocation
A meeting of a religious character as distinguished from congregation, which was more general, dealing with political and legal matters. Hence it is called an "holy convocation." Such convocations were the Sabbaths (Lev.23:2, 3), the Passover (Ex.12:16; Lev.23:7, 8; Num.28:25), Pentecost (Lev.23:21), the feast of Trumpets (Lev.23:24; Num.29:1), the feast of Weeks (Num.28:26), and the feast of Tabernacles (Lev.23:35, 36). The great fast, the annual day of atonement, was "the holy convocation" (Lev.23:27; Num.29:7).

Cook
A person employed to perform culinary service. In early times among the Hebrews cooking was performed by the mistress of the household (Gen.18:2-6; Judg.6:19), and the process was very expeditiously performed (Gen.27:3, 4, 9, 10). Professional cooks were afterwards employed (1 Sam.8:13; 9:23). Few animals, as a rule, were slaughtered (other than sacrifices), except for purposes of hospitality (Gen.18:7; Luke 15:23). The paschal lamb was roasted over a fire (Ex.12:8, 9; 2Chr.35:13). Cooking by boiling was the usual method adopted (Lev.8:31; Ex.16:23). No cooking took place on the Sabbath day (Ex.35:3).

Coos
(written Cos in the R.V.), a small island, one of the Sporades in the Aegean Sea, in the north-west of Rhodes, off the coast of Caria. Paul on his return from his third missionary journey, passed the night here after sailing from Miletus (Acts 21:1). It is now called Stanchio.

Copper
Derived from the Greek kupros (the island of Cyprus), called "Cyprian brass," occurs only in the Authorized Version in Ezra 8:27. Elsewhere the Hebrew word (nehosheth) is improperly rendered "brass," and sometimes "steel" (2 Sam.22:35; Jer.15:12). The "bow of steel" (Job 20:24; Ps.18:34) should have been "bow of copper" (or "brass," as in the R.V.). The vessels of "fine copper" of Ezra 8:27 were probably similar to those of "bright brass" mentioned in 1 Kings 7:45; Dan.10:6.

Tubal-cain was the first artificer in brass and iron (Gen.4:22). Hiram was noted as a worker in brass (1 Kings 7:14). Copper abounded in Palestine (Deut.8:9; Isa.60:17; 1 Chr.22:3, 14). All sorts of vessels in the tabernacle and the temple were made of it (Lev.6:28; Num.16:39; 2 Chr.4:16; Ezra 8:27); also weapons of war (1 Sam.17:5, 6, 38; 2 Sam.21:16). Iron is mentioned only four times (Gen.4:22; Lev.26:19; Num.31:22; 35:16) in the first four books of Moses, while copper (rendered "brass") is mentioned forty times. (See [126]BRASS.)

We find mention of Alexander (q.v.), a "coppersmith" of Ephesus (2 Tim.4:14).

Cor
This Hebrew word, untranslated, denotes a round vessel used as a measure both for liquids and solids. It was equal to one homer, and contained ten ephahs in dry and ten baths in liquid measure (Ezek.45:14). The Rabbins estimated the cor at forty-five gallons, while Josephus estimated it at about eighty-seven. In 1 Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2 Chr.2:10; 27:5, the original word is rendered "measure."

Coral
Heb. ramoth, meaning "heights;" i.e., "high-priced" or valuable things, or, as some suppose, "that which grows high," like a tree (Job 28:18; Ezek.27:16), according to the Rabbins, red coral, which was in use for ornaments.

The coral is a cretaceous marine product, the deposit by minute polypous animals of calcareous matter in cells in which the animal lives. It is of numberless shapes as it grows, but usually is branched like a tree. Great coral reefs and coral islands abound in the Red Sea, whence probably the Hebrews derived their knowledge of it. It is found of different colours, white, black, and red. The red, being esteemed the most precious, was used, as noticed above, for ornamental purposes.

Corban
A Hebrew word adopted into the Greek of the New Testament and left untranslated. It occurs only once (Mark 7:11). It means a gift or offering consecrated to God. Anything over which this word was once pronounced was irrevocably dedicated to the temple. Land, however, so dedicated might be redeemed before the year of jubilee (Lev.27:16-24). Our Lord condemns the Pharisees for their false doctrine, inasmuch as by their traditions they had destroyed the commandment which requires children to honour their father and mother, teaching them to find excuse from helping their parents by the device of pronouncing "Corban" over their goods, thus reserving them to their own selfish use.

Cord
Frequently used in its proper sense, for fastening a tent (Ex.35:18; 39:40), yoking animals to a cart (Isa.5:18), binding prisoners (Judg.15:13; Ps.2:3; 129:4), and measuring ground (2 Sam.8;2; Ps.78:55). Figuratively, death is spoken of as the giving way of the tent-cord (Job 4:21. "Is not their tent-cord plucked up?" R.V.). To gird one's self with a cord was a token of sorrow and humiliation. To stretch a line over a city meant to level it with the ground (Lam.2:8). The "cords of sin" are the consequences or fruits of sin (Prov.5:22). A "threefold cord" is a symbol of union (Eccl.4:12). The "cords of a man" (Hos.11:4) means that men employ, in inducing each other, methods such as are suitable to men, and not "cords" such as oxen are led by. Isaiah (5:18) says, "Woe unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart rope." This verse is thus given in the Chaldee paraphrase: "Woe to those who begin to sin by little and little, drawing sin by cords of vanity: these sins grow and increase till they are strong and are like a cart rope." This may be the true meaning. The wicked at first draw sin with a slender cord; but by-and-by their sins increase, and they are drawn after them by a cart rope. Henderson in his commentary says: "The meaning is that the persons described were not satisfied with ordinary modes of provoking the Deity, and the consequent ordinary approach of his vengeance, but, as it were, yoked themselves in the harness of iniquity, and, putting forth all their strength, drew down upon themselves, with accelerated speed, the load of punishment which their sins deserved."

Coriander
Heb. gad, (Ex.16:31; Num.11:7), seed to which the manna is likened in its form and colour. It is the Coriandrum sativum of botanists, an umbelliferous annual plant with a round stalk, about two feet high. It is widely cultivated in Eastern countries and in the south of Europe for the sake of its seeds, which are in the form of a little ball of the size of a peppercorn. They are used medicinally and as a spice. The Greek name of this plant is korion or koriannon, whence the name "coriander."

Corinth
A Grecian city, on the isthmus which joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. It is about 48 miles west of Athens. The ancient city was destroyed by the Romans (B.C.146), and that mentioned in the New Testament was quite a new city, having been rebuilt about a century afterwards and peopled by a colony of freedmen from Rome. It became under the Romans the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts 18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious and immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. When Paul first visited the city (A.D.51 or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was proconsul. Here Paul resided for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became aquainted with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure Apollos came to it from Ephesus. After an interval he visited it a second time, and remained for three months (20:3). During this second visit his Epistle to the Romans was written (probably A.D.55). Although there were many Jewish converts at Corinth, yet the Gentile element prevailed in the church there.

Some have argued from 2 Cor.12:14; 13:1, that Paul visited Corinth a third time (i.e., that on some unrecorded occasion he visited the city between what are usually called the first and second visits). But the passages referred to only indicate Paul's intention to visit Corinth (comp.1 Cor.16:5, where the Greek present tense denotes an intention), an intention which was in some way frustrated. We can hardly suppose that such a visit could have been made by the apostle without more distinct reference to it.

Corinthians, First Epistle to the
Was written from Ephesus (1 Cor.16:8) about the time of the Passover in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit Macedonia, and then return to Corinth (probably A.D.57).

The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them, first from Apollos (Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they had written him on the subject, and also from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1 Cor.1:11; 16:17). Paul thereupon wrote this letter, for the purpose of checking the factious spirit and correcting the erroneous opinions that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor.2:13; 8:6, 16-18).

The epistle may be divided into four parts:

(1.) The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (1 Cor.1-4).

(2.) He next treats of certain cases of immorality that had become notorious among them. They had apparently set at nought the very first principles of morality (5; 6).

(3.) In the third part he discusses various questions of doctrine and of Christian ethics in reply to certain communications they had made to him. He especially rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the Lord's supper (7-14).

(4.) The concluding part (15; 16) contains an elaborate defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had been called in question by some among them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and greetings.

This epistle "shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his physical weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, out of much affliction and pressure of heart...and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor.2:4); yet he restrained the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy calm which he thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives a vivid picture of the early church...It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine." The apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred evils in whatever form they may appear.

This is one of the epistles the authenticity of which has never been called in question by critics of any school, so many and so conclusive are the evidences of its Pauline origin.

The subscription to this epistle states erroneously in the Authorized Version that it was written at Philippi. This error arose from a mistranslation of 1 Cor.16:5, "For I do pass through Macedonia," which was interpreted as meaning, "I am passing through Macedonia." In 16:8 he declares his intention of remaining some time longer in Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to "pass through Macedonia."

Corinthians, Second Epistle to the
Shortly after writing his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where intense excitement had been aroused against him, the evidence of his great success, and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual route, he reached Troas, the port of departure for Europe. Here he expected to meet with Titus, whom he had sent from Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of the effects produced on the church there by the first epistle; but was disappointed (1 Cor.16:9; 2 Cor.1:8; 2:12, 13). He then left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia; and at Philippi, where he tarried, he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor.7:6, 7), who brought him good news from Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the influence of the feelings awakened in his mind by the favourable report which Titus brought back from Corinth, this second epistle was written. It was probably written at Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, early in the year A.D.58, and was sent to Corinth by Titus. This letter he addresses not only to the church in Corinth, but also to the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece.

The contents of this epistle may be thus arranged:

(1.) Paul speaks of his spiritual labours and course of life, and expresses his warm affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor.1-7).

(2.) He gives specific directions regarding the collection that was to be made for their poor brethren in Judea (8; 9).

(3.) He defends his own apostolic claim (10-13), and justifies himself from the charges and insinuations of the false teacher and his adherents.

This epistle, it has been well said, shows the individuallity of the apostle more than any other. "Human weakness, spiritual strength, the deepest tenderness of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility, a just self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and suffering, as well as for the progress of the church of Christ and for the spiritual advancement of its members, are all displayed in turn in the course of his appeal." -- Lias, Second Corinthians.

Of the effects produced on the Corinthian church by this epistle we have no definite information. We know that Paul visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and that on that occasion he tarried there for three months. In his letter to Rome, written at this time, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of the church to the Romans.

Cormorant
(Lev.11:17; Deut.14:17), Heb. shalak, "plunging," or "darting down," (the Phalacrocorax carbo), ranked among the "unclean" birds; of the same family group as the pelican. It is a "plunging" bird, and is common on the coasts and the island seas of Palestine. Some think the Hebrew word should be rendered "gannet" (Sula bassana, "the solan goose"); others that it is the "tern" or "sea swallow," which also frequents the coasts of Palestine as well as the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan valley during several months of the year. But there is no reason to depart from the ordinary rendering.

In Isa.34:11, Zeph.2:14 (but in R.V., "pelican") the Hebrew word rendered by this name is ka'ath. It is translated "pelican" (q.v.) in Ps.102:6. The word literally means the "vomiter," and the pelican is so called from its vomiting the shells and other things which it has voraciously swallowed. (See [127]PELICAN.)

Corn
The word so rendered (dagan) in Gen.27:28, 37, Num.18:27, Deut.28:51, Lam.2:12, is a general term representing all the commodities we usually describe by the words corn, grain, seeds, peas, beans. With this corresponds the use of the word in John 12:24.

In Gen.41:35, 49, Prov.11:26, Joel 2:24 ("wheat"), the word thus translated (bar; i.e., "winnowed") means corn purified from chaff. With this corresponds the use of the word in the New Testament (Matt.3:12; Luke 3:17; Acts 7:12). In Ps.65:13 it means "growing corn."

In Gen.42:1, 2, 19, Josh.9:14, Neh.10:31 ("victuals"), the word (sheber; i.e., "broken," i.e., grist) denotes generally victuals, provisions, and corn as a principal article of food.

From the time of Solomon, corn began to be exported from Palestine (Ezek.27:17; Amos 8:5). "Plenty of corn" was a part of Issac's blessing conferred upon Jacob (Gen.27:28; comp. Ps.65:13).

Cornelius
A centurion whose history is narrated in Acts 10. He was a "devout man," and like the centurion of Capernaum, believed in the God of Israel. His residence at Caesrea probably brought him into contact with Jews who communicated to him their expectations regarding the Messiah; and thus he was prepared to welcome the message Peter brought him. He became the first fruit of the Gentile world to Christ. He and his family were baptized and admitted into the Christian church (Acts 10:1, 44-48). (See [128]CENTURION.)

Corner
The angle of a house (Job 1:19) or a street (Prov.7:8). "Corners" in Neh.9:22 denotes the various districts of the promised land allotted to the Israelites. In Num.24:17, the "corners of Moab" denotes the whole land of Moab. The "corner of a field" (Lev.19:9; 23:22) is its extreme part, which was not to be reaped. The Jews were prohibited from cutting the "corners," i.e., the extremities, of the hair and whiskers running round the ears (Lev.19:27; 21:5). The "four corners of the earth" in Isa.11:12 and Ezek.7:2 denotes the whole land. The "corners of the streets" mentioned in Matt.6:5 means the angles where streets meet so as to form a square or place of public resort.

The corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr.26:9) was on the north-west side of the city.

Corner-stone (Job 38:6; Isa.28:16), a block of great importance in binding together the sides of a building. The "head of the corner" (Ps.118:22, 23) denotes the coping, the "coign of vantage", i.e., the topstone of a building. But the word "corner stone" is sometimes used to denote some person of rank and importance (Isa.28:16). It is applied to our Lord, who was set in highest honour (Matt.21:42). He is also styled "the chief corner stone" (Eph.2:20; 1 Pet.2:6-8). When Zechariah (10:4), speaking of Judah, says, "Out of him came forth the corner," he is probably to be understood as ultimately referring to the Messiah as the "corner stone." (See [129]TEMPLE, SOLOMON'S.)

Cornet
Heb. shophar, "brightness," with reference to the clearness of its sound (1 Chr.15:28; 2 Chr.15:14; Ps.98:6; Hos.5:8). It is usually rendered in the Authorized Version "trumpet." It denotes the long and straight horn, about eighteen inches long. The words of Joel, "Blow the trumpet," literally, "Sound the cornet," refer to the festival which was the preparation for the day of Atonement. In Dan.3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word (keren) so rendered is a curved horn. The word "cornet" in 2 Sam.6:5 (Heb. mena'an'im, occurring only here) was some kind of instrument played by being shaken like the Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or bells hung loosely on iron rods.

Cotes
Pens or enclosures for flocks (2 Chr.32:28, "cotes for flocks;" R.V., "flocks in folds").

Cottage
(1.) A booth in a vineyard (Isa.1:8); a temporary shed covered with leaves or straw to shelter the watchman that kept the garden. These were slight fabrics, and were removed when no longer needed, or were left to be blown down in winter (Job 27:18).

(2.) A lodging-place (rendered "lodge" in Isa.1:8); a slighter structure than the "booth," as the cucumber patch is more temporary than a vineyard (Isa.24:20). It denotes a frail structure of boughs supported on a few poles, which is still in use in the East, or a hammock suspended between trees, in which the watchman was accustomed to sleep during summer.

(3.) In Zeph.2:6 it is the rendering of the Hebrew keroth, which some suppose to denote rather "pits" (R.V. marg., "caves") or "wells of water," such as shepherds would sink.

Couch
(Gen.49:4; 1 Chr.5:1; Job 7:13; Ps.6:6, etc.), a seat for repose or rest. (See [130]BED.)

Coulter
(1 Sam.13:20, 21), an agricultural instrument, elsewhere called "ploughshare" (Isa.2:4; Micah 4:3; Joel 3:10). It was the facing-piece of a plough, analogous to the modern coulter.

Council
Spoken of counsellors who sat in public trials with the governor of a province (Acts 25:12).

The Jewish councils were the Sanhedrim, or supreme council of the nation, which had subordinate to it smaller tribunals (the "judgment," perhaps, in Matt.5:21, 22) in the cities of Palestine (Matt.10:17; Mark 13:9). In the time of Christ the functions of the Sanhedrim were limited (John 16:2; 2 Cor.11:24). In Ps.68:27 the word "council" means simply a company of persons. (R.V. marg., "company.")

In ecclesiastical history the word is used to denote an assembly of pastors or bishops for the discussion and regulation of church affairs. The first of these councils was that of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem, of which we have a detailed account in Acts 15.

Counsellor
An adviser (Prov.11:14; 15:22), a king's state counsellor (2 Sam.15:12). Used once of the Messiah (Isa.9:6). In Mark 15:43, Luke 23:50, the word probably means a member of the Jewish Sanhedrim.

Courses
When David was not permitted to build the temple, he proceeded, among the last acts of his life, with the assistance of Zadok and Ahimelech, to organize the priestly and musical services to be conducted in the house of God. (1.) He divided the priests into twenty-four courses (1 Chr.24:1-19), sixteen being of the house of Eleazar and eight of that of Ithamar. Each course was under a head or chief, and ministered for a week, the order being determined by lot. (2.) The rest of the 38,000 Levites (23:4) were divided also into twenty-four courses, each to render some allotted service in public worship: 4,000 in twenty-four courses were set apart as singers and musicians under separate leaders (25); 4,000 as porters or keepers of the doors and gates of the sanctuary (26:1-19); and 6,000 as officers and judges to see to the administration of the law in all civil and ecclesiastical matters (20-32).

This arrangement was re-established by Hezekiah (2 Chr.31:2); and afterwards the four sacerdotal courses which are said to have returned from the Captivity were re-divided into the original number of twenty-four by Ezra (6:18).

Court
The enclosure of the tabernacle (Ex.27:9-19; 40:8), of the temple (1 Kings 6:36), of a prison (Neh.3:25), of a private house (2 Sam.17:18), and of a king's palace (2 Kings 20:4).

Covenant
A contract or agreement between two parties. In the Old Testament the Hebrew word berith is always thus translated. Berith is derived from a root which means "to cut," and hence a covenant is a "cutting," with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties passing between them, in making a covenant (Gen.15; Jer.34:18, 19).

The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke, which is, however, rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought to be rendered, just as the word berith of the Old Testament, "covenant."

This word is used (1) of a covenant or compact between man and man (Gen.21:32), or between tribes or nations (1 Sam.11:1; Josh.9:6, 15). In entering into a convenant, Jehovah was solemnly called on to witness the transaction (Gen.31:50), and hence it was called a "covenant of the Lord" (1 Sam.20:8). The marriage compact is called "the covenant of God" (Prov.2:17), because the marriage was made in God's name. Wicked men are spoken of as acting as if they had made a "covenant with death" not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour them (Isa.28:15, 18).

(2.) The word is used with reference to God's revelation of himself in the way of promise or of favour to men. Thus God's promise to Noah after the Flood is called a covenant (Gen.9; Jer.33:20, "my covenant"). We have an account of God's covernant with Abraham (Gen.17, comp. Lev.26:42), of the covenant of the priesthood (Num.25:12, 13; Deut.33:9; Neh.13:29), and of the covenant of Sinai (Ex.34:27, 28; Lev.26:15), which was afterwards renewed at different times in the history of Israel (Deut.29; Josh.1:24; 2 Chr.15; 23; 29; 34; Ezra 10; Neh.9). In conformity with human custom, God's covenant is said to be confirmed with an oath (Deut.4:31; Ps.89:3), and to be accompanied by a sign (Gen.9; 17). Hence the covenant is called God's "counsel," "oath," "promise" (Ps.89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb.6:13-20; Luke 1:68-75). God's covenant consists wholly in the bestowal of blessing (Isa.59:21; Jer.31:33, 34).

The term covenant is also used to designate the regular succession of day and night (Jer.33:20), the Sabbath (Ex.31:16), circumcision (Gen.17:9, 10), and in general any ordinance of God (Jer.34:13, 14).

A "covenant of salt" signifies an everlasting covenant, in the sealing or ratifying of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, is used (Num.18:19; Lev.2:13; 2 Chr.13:5).

COVENANT OF WORKS, the constitution under which Adam was placed at his creation. In this covenant, (1.) The contracting parties were (a) God the moral Governor, and (b) Adam, a free moral agent, and representative of all his natural posterity (Rom.5:12-19). (2.) The promise was "life" (Matt.19:16, 17; Gal.3:12). (3.) The condition was perfect obedience to the law, the test in this case being abstaining from eating the fruit of the "tree of knowledge," etc. (4.) The penalty was death (Gen.2:16, 17).

This covenant is also called a covenant of nature, as made with man in his natural or unfallen state; a covenant of life, because "life" was the promise attached to obedience; and a legal covenant, because it demanded perfect obedience to the law.

The "tree of life" was the outward sign and seal of that life which was promised in the covenant, and hence it is usually called the seal of that covenant.

This covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled all its conditions in behalf of his people, and now offers salvation on the condition of faith. It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable justice of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to Christ and accepted his righteousness.

CONVENANT OF GRACE, the eternal plan of redemption entered into by the three persons of the Godhead, and carried out by them in its several parts. In it the Father represented the Godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his people as their surety (John 17:4, 6, 9; Isa.42:6; Ps.89:3).

The conditions of this covenant were, (1.) On the part of the Father (a) all needful preparation to the Son for the accomplishment of his work (Heb.10:5; Isa.42:1-7); (b) support in the work (Luke 22:43); and (c) a glorious reward in the exaltation of Christ when his work was done (Phil.2:6-11), his investiture with universal dominion (John 5:22; Ps.110:1), his having the administration of the covenant committed into his hands (Matt.28:18; John 1:12; 17:2; Acts 2:33), and in the final salvation of all his people (Isa.35:10; 53:10, 11; Jer.31:33; Titus 1:2). (2.) On the part of the Son the conditions were (a) his becoming incarnate (Gal.4:4, 5); and (b) as the second Adam his representing all his people, assuming their place and undertaking all their obligations under the violated covenant of works; (c) obeying the law (Ps.40:8; Isa.42:21; John 9:4, 5), and (d) suffering its penalty (Isa.53; 2 Cor.5:21; Gal.3:13), in their stead.

Christ, the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in behalf of his people, and dispenses to them all its blessings. In Heb.8:6; 9:15; 12:24, this title is given to Christ. (See [131]DISPENSATION.)

Covering of the eyes
Occurs only in Gen.20:16. In the Revised Version the rendering is "it (i.e., Abimelech's present of 1,000 pieces of silver to Abraham) is for thee a covering of the eyes." This has been regarded as an implied advice to Sarah to conform to the custom of married women, and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes as well as the rest of the face.

Covetousness
A strong desire after the possession of worldly things (Col.3:5; Eph.5:5; Heb.13:5; 1 Tim.6:9, 10; Matt.6:20). It assumes sometimes the more aggravated form of avarice, which is the mark of cold-hearted worldliness.

Cow
A cow and her calf were not to be killed on the same day (Lev.22:28; Ex.23:19; Deut.22:6, 7). The reason for this enactment is not given. A state of great poverty is described in the words of Isa.7:21-25, where, instead of possessing great resources, a man shall depend for the subsistence of himself and his family on what a single cow and two sheep could yield.

Crane
(Isa.38:14; Jer.8:7). In both of these passages the Authorized Version has reversed the Hebrew order of the words. "Crane or swallow" should be "swallow or crane," as in the Revised Version. The rendering is there correct. The Hebrew for crane is 'agur, the Grus cincerea, a bird well known in Palestine. It is migratory, and is distinguished by its loud voice, its cry being hoarse and melancholy.

Creation
"In the beginning" God created, i.e., called into being, all things out of nothing. This creative act on the part of God was absolutely free, and for infinitely wise reasons. The cause of all things exists only in the will of God. The work of creation is attributed (1) to the Godhead (Gen.1:1, 26); (2) to the Father (1 Cor.8:6); (3) to the Son (John 1:3; Col.1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy Spirit (Gen.1:2; Job 26:13; Ps.104:30). The fact that he is the Creator distinguishes Jehovah as the true God (Isa.37:16; 40:12, 13; 54:5; Ps.96:5; Jer.10:11, 12). The one great end in the work of creation is the manifestation of the glory of the Creator (Col.1:16; Rev.4:11; Rom.11:36). God's works, equally with God's word, are a revelation from him; and between the teachings of the one and those of the other, when rightly understood, there can be no contradiction.

Traditions of the creation, disfigured by corruptions, are found among the records of ancient Eastern nations. (See [132]ACCAD.) A peculiar interest belongs to the traditions of the Accadians, the primitive inhabitants of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. These within the last few years have been brought to light in the tablets and cylinders which have been rescued from the long-buried palaces and temples of Assyria. They bear a remarkable resemblance to the record of Genesis.

Creature
Denotes the whole creation in Rom.8:39; Col.1:15; Rev.5:13; the whole human race in Mark 16:15; Rom.8:19-22.

The living creatures in Ezek.10:15, 17, are imaginary beings, symbols of the Divine attributes and operations.

Crescens
Increasing, probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He was one of Paul's assistants (2 Tim.4:10), probably a Christian of Rome.

Crete
Now called Candia, one of the largest islands in the Meditterranean, about 140 miles long and 35 broad. It was at one time a very prosperous and populous island, having a "hundred cities." The character of the people is described in Paul's quotation from "one of their own poets" (Epimenides) in his epistle to Titus: "The Cretans are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies" (Titus 1:12). Jews from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The island was visited by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27). Here Paul subsequently left Titus (1:5) "to ordain elders." Some have supposed that it was the original home of the Caphtorim (q.v.) or Philistines.

Crimson
See [133]COLOUR.

Crisping-pin
(Isa.3:22; R.V., "satchel"), some kind of female ornament, probably like the modern reticule. The Hebrew word harit properly signifies pouch or casket or purse. It is rendered "bag" in 2 Kings 5:23.

Crispus
Curled, the chief of the synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18:8). He was converted and, with his family, baptized by Paul (1 Cor.1:14).

Cross
In the New Testament the instrument of crucifixion, and hence used for the crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph.2:16; Heb.12:2; 1 Cor.1:17, 18; Gal.5:11; 6:12, 14; Phil.3:18). The word is also used to denote any severe affliction or trial (Matt.10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; 10:21).

The forms in which the cross is represented are these:

1. The crux simplex (I), a "single piece without transom."

2. The crux decussata (X), or St. Andrew's cross.

3. The crux commissa (T), or St. Anthony's cross.

4. The crux immissa (t), or Latin cross, which was the kind of cross on which our Saviour died. Above our Lord's head, on the projecting beam, was placed the "title." (See [134]CRUCIFIXION.)

After the conversion, so-called, of Constantine the Great (B.C.313), the cross first came into use as an emblem of Christianity. He pretended at a critical moment that he saw a flaming cross in the heavens bearing the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces", i.e., By this sign thou shalt conquer, and that on the following night Christ himself appeared and ordered him to take for his standard the sign of this cross. In this form a new standard, called the Labarum, was accordingly made, and borne by the Roman armies. It remained the standard of the Roman army till the downfall of the Western empire. It bore the embroidered monogram of Christ, i.e., the first two Greek letters of his name, X and P (chi and rho), with the Alpha and Omega. (See [135]A.)

Crown
(1.) Denotes the plate of gold in the front of the high priest's mitre (Ex.29:6; 39:30). The same Hebrew word so rendered (ne'zer) denotes the diadem worn by Saul in battle (2 Sam.1:10), and also that which was used at the coronation of Joash (2 Kings 11:12).

(2.) The more general name in Hebrew for a crown is 'atarah, meaning a "circlet." This is used of crowns and head ornaments of divers kinds, including royal crowns. Such was the crown taken from the king of Ammon by David (2 Sam.12:30). The crown worn by the Assyrian kings was a high mitre, sometimes adorned with flowers. There are sculptures also representing the crowns worn by the early Egyptian and Persian kings. Sometimes a diadem surrounded the royal head-dress of two or three fillets. This probably signified that the wearer had dominion over two or three countries. In Rev.12:3; 13:1, we read of "many crowns," a token of extended dominion.

(3.) The ancient Persian crown (Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was called kether; i.e., "a chaplet," a high cap or tiara. Crowns were worn sometimes to represent honour and power (Ezek.23:42). They were worn at marriages (Cant.3:11; Isa.61:10, "ornaments;" R.V., "a garland"), and at feasts and public festivals.

The crown was among the Romans and Greeks a symbol of victory and reward. The crown or wreath worn by the victors in the Olympic games was made of leaves of the wild olive; in the Pythian games, of laurel; in the Nemean games, of parsley; and in the Isthmian games, of the pine. The Romans bestowed the "civic crown" on him who saved the life of a citizen. It was made of the leaves of the oak. In opposition to all these fading crowns the apostles speak of the incorruptible crown, the crown of life (James 1:12; Rev.2:10) "that fadeth not away" (1 Pet.5:4, Gr. amarantinos; comp.1:4). Probably the word "amaranth" was applied to flowers we call "everlasting," the "immortal amaranth."

Crown of thorns
Our Lord was crowned with a, in mockery by the Romans (Matt.27:29). The object of Pilate's guard in doing this was probably to insult, and not specially to inflict pain. There is nothing to show that the shrub thus used was, as has been supposed, the spina Christi, which could have been easily woven into a wreath. It was probably the thorny nabk, which grew abundantly round about Jerusalem, and whose flexible, pliant, and round branches could easily be platted into the form of a crown. (See [136]THORN, 3.)

Crucifixion
A common mode of punishment among heathen nations in early times. It is not certain whether it was known among the ancient Jews; probably it was not. The modes of capital punishment according to the Mosaic law were, by the sword (Ex.21), strangling, fire (Lev.20), and stoning (Deut.21).

This was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and to a Jew it would acquire greater horror from the curse in Deut.21:23.

This punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to scourging. In the case of our Lord, however, his scourging was rather before the sentence was passed upon him, and was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting pity and procuring his escape from further punishment (Luke 23:22; John 19:1).

The condemned one carried his own cross to the place of execution, which was outside the city, in some conspicuous place set apart for the purpose. Before the nailing to the cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh (the sopor) was given, for the purpose of deadening the pangs of the sufferer. Our Lord refused this cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt.27:34). The spongeful of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of the Roman soldiers, which was put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt.27:48; Luke 23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of his thirst (John 19:29). The accounts given of the crucifixion of our Lord are in entire agreement with the customs and practices of the Roman in such cases. He was crucified between two "malefactors" (Isa.53:12; Luke 23:32), and was watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23; Matt.27:36, 54), with their centurion. The "breaking of the legs" of the malefactors was intended to hasten death, and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the unusual rapidity of our Lord's death (19:33) was due to his previous sufferings and his great mental anguish. The omission of the breaking of his legs was the fulfilment of a type (Ex.12:46). He literally died of a broken heart, a ruptured heart, and hence the flowing of blood and water from the wound made by the soldier's spear (John 19:34). Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the cross, namely, (1) Luke 23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26; (4) Matt.27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John 19:28; (6) 19:30; (7) Luke 23:46.

Cruse
A utensil; a flask or cup for holding water (1 Sam.26:11, 12, 16; 1 Kings 19:6) or oil (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). In 1 Kings 14:3 the word there so rendered means properly a bottle, as in Jer.19:1, 10, or pitcher. In 2 Kings 2:20, a platter or flat metal saucer is intended. The Hebrew word here used is translated "dish" in 21:13; "pans," in 2 Chr.35:13; and "bosom," in Prov.19:24; 26:15 (R.V., "dish").

Crystal
(Ezek.1:22, with the epithet "terrible," as dazzling the spectators with its brightness). The word occurs in Rev.4:6; 21:11; 22:1. It is a stone of the flint order, the most refined kind of quartz. The Greek word here used means also literally "ice." The ancients regarded the crystal as only pure water congealed into extreme hardness by great length of time.

Cubit
Heb. ammah; i.e., "mother of the arm," the fore-arm, is a word derived from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It is difficult to determine the exact length of this measure, from the uncertainty whether it included the entire length from the elbow to the tip of the longest finger, or only from the elbow to the root of the hand at the wrist. The probability is that the longer was the original cubit. The common computation as to the length of the cubit makes it 20.24 inches for the ordinary cubit, and 21.888 inches for the sacred one. This is the same as the Egyptian measurements.

A rod or staff the measure of a cubit is called in Judg.3:16 gomed, which literally means a "cut," something "cut off." The LXX. and Vulgate render it "span."

Cuckoo
(Heb. shahaph), from a root meaning "to be lean; slender." This bird is mentioned only in Lev.11:16 and Deut.14:15 (R.V., "seamew"). Some have interpreted the Hebrew word by "petrel" or "shearwater" (Puffinus cinereus), which is found on the coast of Syria; others think it denotes the "sea-gull" or "seamew." The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) feeds on reptiles and large insects. It is found in Asia and Africa as well as in Europe. It only passes the winter in Palestine. The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry Yakub_, and hence they call it _tir el-Yakub; i.e., "Jacob's bird."

Cucumbers
(Heb. plur. kishshuim; i.e., "hard," "difficult" of digestion, only in Num.11:5). This vegetable is extensively cultivated in the East at the present day, as it appears to have been in earlier times among the Hebrews. It belongs to the gourd family of plants. In the East its cooling pulp and juice are most refreshing. "We need not altogether wonder that the Israelites, wearily marching through the arid solitudes of the Sinaitic peninsula, thought more of the cucumbers and watermelons of which they had had no lack in Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage which was the price of these luxuries." Groser's Scripture Natural History.

Isaiah speaks of a "lodge" (1:8; Heb. sukkah), i.e., a shed or edifice more solid than a booth, for the protection throughout the season from spring to autumn of the watchers in a "garden of cucumbers."

Cummin
(Heb. kammon; i.e., a "condiment"), the fruit or seed of an umbelliferous plant, the Cuminum sativum, still extensively cultivated in the East. Its fruit is mentioned in Isa.28:25, 27. In the New Testament it is mentioned in Matt.23:23, where our Lord pronounces a "woe" on the scribes and Pharisees, who were zealous in paying tithes of "mint and anise and cummin," while they omitted the weightier matters of the law." "It is used as a spice, both bruised, to mix with bread, and also boiled, in the various messes and stews which compose an Oriental banquet." Tristram, Natural History.

Cup
A wine-cup (Gen.40:11, 21), various forms of which are found on Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. All Solomon's drinking vessels were of gold (1 Kings 10: 21). The cups mentioned in the New Testament were made after Roman and Greek models, and were sometimes of gold (Rev.17:4).

The art of divining by means of a cup was practiced in Egypt (Gen.44:2-17), and in the East generally.

The "cup of salvation" (Ps.116:13) is the cup of thanksgiving for the great salvation. The "cup of consolation" (Jer.16:7) refers to the custom of friends sending viands and wine to console relatives in mourning (Prov.31:6). In 1 Cor.10:16, the "cup of blessing" is contrasted with the "cup of devils" (1 Cor.10:21). The sacramental cup is the "cup of blessing," because of blessing pronounced over it (Matt.26:27; Luke 22:17). The "portion of the cup" (Ps.11:6; 16:5) denotes one's condition of life, prosperous or adverse. A "cup" is also a type of sensual allurement (Jer.51:7; Prov.23:31; Rev.17:4). We read also of the "cup of astonishment," the "cup of trembling," and the "cup of God's wrath" (Ps.75:8; Isa.51:17; Jer.25:15; Lam.4:21; Ezek.23:32; Rev.16:19; comp. Matt.26:39, 42; John 18:11). The cup is also the symbol of death (Matt.16:28; Mark 9:1; Heb.2:9).

Cup-bearer
An officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish monarchs. The cup-bearer of the king of Egypt is mentioned in connection with Joseph's history (Gen.40:1-21; 41:9). Rabshakeh (q.v.) was cup-bearer in the Assyrian court (2 Kings 18:17). Nehemiah filled this office to the king of Persia (Neh.1:11). We read also of Solomon's cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr.9:4).

Curious arts
(Acts 19:19), magical arts; jugglery practised by the Ephesian conjurers. Ephesus was noted for its wizard and the "Ephesian spells;" i.e., charms or scraps of parchment written over with certain formula, which were worn as a safeguard against all manner of evils. The more important and powerful of these charms were written out in books which circulated among the exorcists, and were sold at a great price.

Curse
Denounced by God against the serpent (Gen.3:14), and against Cain (4:11). These divine maledictions carried their effect with them. Prophetical curses were sometimes pronounced by holy men (Gen.9:25; 49:7; Deut.27:15; Josh.6:26). Such curses are not the consequence of passion or revenge, they are predictions.

No one on pain of death shall curse father or mother (Ex.21:17), nor the prince of his people (22:28), nor the deaf (Lev.19:14). Cursing God or blaspheming was punishable by death (Lev.24:10-16). The words "curse God and die" (R.V., "renounce God and die"), used by Job's wife (Job 2:9), have been variously interpreted. Perhaps they simply mean that as nothing but death was expected, God would by this cursing at once interpose and destroy Job, and so put an end to his sufferings.

Curtain
(1.) Ten curtains, each twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, made of fine linen, also eleven made of goat's hair, covered the tabernacle (Ex.26:1-13; 36:8-17).

(2.) The sacred curtain, separating the holy of holies from the sanctuary, is designated by a different Hebrew word (peroketh). It is described as a "veil of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work" (Ex.26:31; Lev.16:2; Num.18:7).

(3.) "Stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain" (Isa.40:22), is an expression used with reference to the veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen over their courts in summer. According to the prophet, the heavens are spread over our heads as such an awning. Similar expressions are found in Ps.104:2l; comp. Isa.44:24; Job 9:8.

Cush
Black. (1.) A son, probably the eldest, of Ham, and the father of Nimrod (Gen.10:8; 1 Chr.1:10). From him the land of Cush seems to have derived its name. The question of the precise locality of the land of Cush has given rise to not a little controversy. The second river of Paradise surrounded the whole land of Cush (Gen.2:13, R.V.). The term Cush is in the Old Testament generally applied to the countries south of the Israelites. It was the southern limit of Egypt (Ezek.29:10, A.V. "Ethiopia," Heb. Cush), with which it is generally associated (Ps.68:31; Isa.18:1; Jer.46:9, etc.). It stands also associated with Elam (Isa.11:11), with Persia (Ezek.38:5), and with the Sabeans (Isa.45:14). From these facts it has been inferred that Cush included Arabia and the country on the west coast of the Red Sea. Rawlinson takes it to be the country still known as Khuzi-stan, on the east side of the Lower Tigris. But there are intimations which warrant the conclusion that there was also a Cush in Africa, the Ethiopia (so called by the Greeks) of Africa. Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp.30:4-6) of it as lying south of Egypt. It was the country now known to us as Nubia and Abyssinia (Isa.18:1; Zeph.3:10, Heb. Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia is termed Kesh. The Cushites appear to have spread along extensive tracts, stretching from the Upper Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period there was a stream of migration of Cushites "from Ethiopia, properly so called, through Arabia, Babylonia, and Persia, to Western India." The Hamite races, soon after their arrival in Africa, began to spread north, east, and west. Three branches of the Cushite or Ethiopian stock, moving from Western Asia, settled in the regions contiguous to the Persian Gulf. One branch, called the Cossaeans, settled in the mountainous district on the east of the Tigris, known afterwards as Susiana; another occupied the lower regions of the Euphrates and the Tigris; while a third colonized the southern shores and islands of the gulf, whence they afterwards emigrated to the Mediterranean and settled on the coast of Palestine as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was a great Cushite chief. He conquered the Accadians, a Tauranian race, already settled in Mesopotamia, and founded his kingdom, the Cushites mingling with the Accads, and so forming the Chaldean nation.

(2.) A Benjamite of this name is mentioned in the title of Ps.7. "Cush was probably a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe, and had sought the friendship of David for the purpose of 'rewarding evil to him that was at peace with him.'"

Cushan
Probably a poetic or prolonged name of the land of Cush, the Arabian Cush (Hab.3:7). Some have, however, supposed this to be the same as Chushan-rishathaim (Judg.3:8, 10), i.e., taking the latter part of the name as a title or local appellation, Chushan "of the two iniquities" (= oppressing Israel, and provoking them to idolatry), a Mesopotamian king, identified by Rawlinson with Asshur-ris-ilim (the father of Tiglathpileser I.); but incorrectly, for the empire of Assyria was not yet founded. He held Israel in bondage for eight years.

Cushite
(1.) The messenger sent by Joab to David to announce his victory over Absalom (2 Sam.18:32).

(2.) The father of Shelemiah (Jer.36:14).

(3.) Son of Gedaliah, and father of the prophet Zephaniah (1:1).

(4.) Moses married a Cushite woman (Num.12:1). From this circumstance some have supposed that Zipporah was meant, and hence that Midian was Cush.

Custom
A tax imposed by the Romans. The tax-gatherers were termed publicans (q.v.), who had their stations at the gates of cities, and in the public highways, and at the place set apart for that purpose, called the "receipt of custom" (Matt.9: 9; Mark 2:14), where they collected the money that was to be paid on certain goods (Matt.17:25). These publicans were tempted to exact more from the people than was lawful, and were, in consequence of their extortions, objects of great hatred. The Pharisees would have no intercourse with them (Matt.5:46, 47; 9:10, 11).

A tax or tribute (q.v.) of half a shekel was annually paid by every adult Jew for the temple. It had to be paid in Jewish coin (Matt.22:17-19; Mark 12:14, 15). Money-changers (q.v.) were necessary, to enable the Jews who came up to Jerusalem at the feasts to exchange their foreign coin for Jewish money; but as it was forbidden by the law to carry on such a traffic for emolument (Deut.23:19, 20), our Lord drove them from the temple (Matt.21:12: Mark 11:15).

Cuthah
One of the Babylonian cities or districts from which Shalmaneser transplanted certain colonists to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). Some have conjectured that the "Cutheans" were identical with the "Cossaeans" who inhabited the hill-country to the north of the river Choaspes. Cuthah is now identified with Tell Ibrahim, 15 miles north-east of Babylon.

Cutting
The flesh in various ways was an idolatrous practice, a part of idol-worship (Deut.14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). The Israelites were commanded not to imitate this practice (Lev.19:28; 21:5; Deut.14:1). The tearing of the flesh from grief and anguish of spirit in mourning for the dead was regarded as a mark of affection (Jer.16:6; 41:5; 48:37).

Allusions are made in Revelation (13:16; 17:5; 19:20) to the practice of printing marks on the body, to indicate allegiance to a deity. We find also references to it, through in a different direction, by Paul (Gal.6; 7) and by Ezekiel (9:4). (See [137]HAIR.)

Cymbals
(Heb. tzeltzelim, from a root meaning to "tinkle"), musical instruments, consisting of two convex pieces of brass one held in each hand, which were clashed together to produce a loud clanging sound; castanets; "loud cymbals." "Highsounding cymbals" consisted of two larger plates, one held also in each hand (2 Sam.6:5; Ps.150:5; 1 Chr.13:8; 15:16, 19, 28; 1 Cor.13:1).

Cypress
(Heb. tirzah, "hardness"), mentioned only in Isa.44:14 (R.V., "holm tree"). The oldest Latin version translates this word by ilex, i.e., the evergreen oak, which may possibly have been the tree intended; but there is great probability that our Authorized Version is correct in rendering it "cypress." This tree grows abundantly on the mountains of Hermon. Its wood is hard and fragrant, and very durable. Its foliage is dark and gloomy. It is an evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens). "Throughout the East it is used as a funereal tree; and its dark, tall, waving plumes render it peculiarly appropriate among the tombs."

Cyprus
One of the largest islands of the Mediterranean, about 148 miles long and 40 broad. It is distant about 60 miles from the Syrian coast. It was the "Chittim" of the Old Testament (Num.24:24). The Greek colonists gave it the name of Kypros, from the cyprus, i.e., the henna (see [138]CAMPHIRE), which grew on this island. It was originally inhabited by Phoenicians. In B.C.477 it fell under the dominion of the Greeks; and became a Roman province B.C.58. In ancient times it was a centre of great commercial activity. Corn and wine and oil were produced here in the greatest perfection. It was rich also in timber and in mineral wealth.

It is first mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 4:36) as the native place of Barnabas. It was the scene of Paul's first missionary labours (13:4-13), when he and Barnabas and John Mark were sent forth by the church of Antioch. It was afterwards visited by Barnabas and Mark alone (15:39). Mnason, an "old disciple," probaly one of the converts of the day of Pentecost belonging to this island, is mentioned (21:16). It is also mentioned in connection with the voyages of Paul (Acts 21:3; 27:4). After being under the Turks for three hundred years, it was given up to the British Government in 1878.

Cyrene
A city (now Tripoli) in Upper Libya, North Africa, founded by a colony of Greeks (B.C.630). It contained latterly a large number of Jews, who were introduced into the city by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, because he thought they would contribute to the security of the place. They increased in number and influence; and we are thus prepared for the frequent references to them in connection with the early history of Christianity. Simon, who bore our Lord's cross, was a native of this place (Matt.27:32; Mark 15:21). Jews from Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:10); and Cyrenian Jews had a synagogue at Jerusalem (6:9). Converts belonging to Cyrene contributed to the formation of the first Gentile church at Antioch (11:20). Among "the prophets and teachers" who "ministered to the Lord at Antioch" was Lucius of Cyrene (13:1).

Cyrenius
The Grecized form of Quirinus. His full name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. Recent historical investigation has proved that Quirinus was governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria at the time of our Lord's birth. Cilicia, which he ruled, being a province of Syria, he is called the governor, which he was de jure, of Syria. Some ten years afterwards he was appointed governor of Syria for the second time. During his tenure of office, at the time of our Lord's birth (Luke 2:2), a "taxing" (R.V., "enrolment;" i.e., a registration) of the people was "first made;" i.e., was made for the first time under his government. (See [139]TAXING.)

Cyrus
(Heb. Ko'resh), the celebrated "King of Persia" (Elam) who was conqueror of Babylon, and issued the decree of liberation to the Jews (Ezra 1:1, 2). He was the son of Cambyses, the prince of Persia, and was born about B.C.599. In the year B.C.559 he became king of Persia, the kingdom of Media being added to it partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great military leader, bent on universal conquest. Babylon fell before his army (B.C.538) on the night of Belshazzar's feast (Dan.5:30), and then the ancient dominion of Assyria was also added to his empire (cf., "Go up, O Elam", Isa.21:2).

Hitherto the great kings of the earth had only oppressed the Jews. Cyrus was to them as a "shepherd" (Isa.44:28; 45:1). God employed him in doing service to his ancient people. He may posibly have gained, through contact with the Jews, some knowledge of their religion.

The "first year of Cyrus" (Ezra 1:1) is not the year of his elevation to power over the Medes, nor over the Persians, nor the year of the fall of Babylon, but the year succeeding the two years during which "Darius the Mede" was viceroy in Babylon after its fall. At this time only (B.C.536) Cyrus became actual king over Palestine, which became a part of his Babylonian empire. The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem marked a great epoch in the history of the Jewish people (2 Chr.36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-4; 4:3; 5:13-17; 6:3-5).

This decree was discovered "at Achmetha [R.V. marg., "Ecbatana"], in the palace that is in the province of the Medes" (Ezra 6:2). A chronicle drawn up just after the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, gives the history of the reign of Nabonidus (Nabunahid), the last king of Babylon, and of the fall of the Babylonian empire. In B.C.538 there was a revolt in Southern Babylonia, while the army of Cyrus entered the country from the north. In June the Babylonian army was completely defeated at Opis, and immediately afterwards Sippara opened its gates to the conqueror. Gobryas (Ugbaru), the governor of Kurdistan, was then sent to Babylon, which surrendered "without fighting," and the daily services in the temples continued without a break. In October, Cyrus himself arrived, and proclaimed a general amnesty, which was communicated by Gobryas to "all the province of Babylon," of which he had been made governor. Meanwhile, Nabonidus, who had concealed himself, was captured, but treated honourably; and when his wife died, Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conducted the funeral. Cyrus now assumed the title of "king of Babylon," claimed to be the descendant of the ancient kings, and made rich offerings to the temples. At the same time he allowed the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia to return to their old homes, carrying with them the images of their gods. Among these populations were the Jews, who, as they had no images, took with them the sacred vessels of the temple.